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ii NAniKAL f!
ADVANCED
IGEOGRAPHYI
^^.
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jj AM! mrAN • ROOK'- COMPANY'
REDWAY
HINMAN
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PUtSRHTBD BT TRB PUBUSHSKS
n
TEXT-BOOK COLLECTION
— OF THH—
Department of Education
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY
COMMENT:
<S^i
b£JjJ»-?^-s*i
rmTH ■BiEimii lull
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
LIBRARY
TEXTBOOK
COLLECTION
.-..■.-';'
THE NATURAL OEOORAPHIES
NATURAL
ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY
JACQUES W. EEDWAT
RUSSELL HINMAN
Author of the "Eeleetie Pkstkal tiiograpky"
TSEianimn of edvoition
tEun) juxFou rasioi DsiTisam
NEW TOEK ■;■ CINCINNATI ■:■ CHICAGO
AMEBICAN BOOK COMPANY
632342
PREFACE.
The Natural Advanced Geog^phy forms, with me tClemeiitary book
of this series, a complete and rational school course in the study of ^eo^-
raphy as recommended by the Committee of Fifteen.
In its newer aspects school geography demands much that is not to be
found in the older text-books, as a glance tlirough this volume will indi-
cate. One of its prime requirements is the arrangement of the appar-
ently isolated and unrelated facts of gcogp*aphy into such order that their
correlation may be perceived and the unity of nature recognized. When
the subject is thus studied in orderly sequence, it unfolds itself naturally
and logfically, each lesson preparing the way for those which follow, and
for this reason the new geography is found to be not only more interesting
and useful than the old, but vastly more intelligible, and hence much
easier for both the pupil and the teacher.
Throughout the Natural series the central thought is Man in his rela-
tions to his physical environment, but the plan of treatment is essentially
different in the two books. In the Elementary the young pupil is led to
observe the peculiarities of man and nature about his own home, and
with these standards of comparison he is gradually led to a conception
of the world as a whole. This Advanced Geography, however, treats
first of the earth as a whole, and of the general Tiianner iu which its
physical features, its plants, its animals, and its human inhabitants h'lve
reached their present condition and distribution through centimes of
change and development.. This part of the subject has been presented
with considerable detail, because of its fundamental importance*. No
country or people has attained its present condition unaffected by the
influences of other, and often of very remote regions. Tht^ remainder
of the book is devoted to the various parts or countries of the earth.
The development of each part is studied and analyzed in the light of
the preceding lessons on the Earth as a Whole, and thus true relation-
ships are established.
The Topics for Oral and Written Work and the exercises in Correla-
tions and Comparisons which have been inserted at convenient inter\'als
in this book not only serve as reviews, but are so framed that they stimu-
late thought and lead the pupil to view what he has learned from a some-
what different standpoint. These features form a nucleus for the
''laboratory work^ now recognized as an essential feature in the stady
of geogfraphy.
The optional Supplemental Work at the ends of the various sections is
noc essential to the course, but it abounds in suggestions for appropriate
collateral reading and for variations in the exercises of the class or of
individual pupils. This work the teacher may use to the extent which
time and circumstances p^^rmit.
Corresponding maps throughout the book are drawn on the same
scale, and therefore prevent the pupil from forming the usual miscon-
ceptions regarding the comparative size of countries. A single scale
serves for the colored maps of all the g^^ud divisions; a single, but
larger scale, for tlie maps of the United States and Europe ; and a single,
but still larger scale, for the sectional maps — with the exception of that
of New England, wliich is drawn on three times the scale of the others.
On the pliysical maps, the relief features are shown by contour lines in
the manner now used on the best topographical maps issued by the
government.
The pictures have been geneniUy engraved directly from photographs,
and liave been select(?d and aiTauged solely for the purpose of illustrating
the accompanying t<^xt. The photograph of the Great Biurier reef re-
produced on p. 21 was kindly loaned by the American Museum of Nat-
unil History, Now York city.
Acknowledgments are due to Miss Louise Connolly and to Miss Carl
L. Garrison of the Washington (I). C.) schools for valuable assistance in
revising and perfecting the manuscript.
CONTENTS.
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
THE EARTH. paob
FOBM AND Sm 5
BoKATiaM 6
UPHEAVAL OP THE LAND.
Thb Subtace or the Earth 9
Thx Continental Plateau 9
Highlands and IjOWlandb 10
Coasts 10
Upheaval or Mountains U
WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND.
AiMOfiPHERio Agents 12
Ground Water 14
Streams and Lakes 15
DiviDBs AND Slopes 17
Work or Streams 17
BxBBAM Features 18
Glacibrs 19
Waves and Tides 20
Rocky Layers or the Land 22
CLIMATE.
SXASONS
Zones and HxAif Bsiab
WOIDS
23
23
CLIMATE. PAGE
Raintall 26
Ocean Currents 27
LIFE.
Distribution or CirB 28
Great LirE Regions 29
Australian Region .29
South American, ArRiOAN, and Oriental Re-
gions 30
Eurasian and North Amebioan Regions ... 31
Island and Ooean Lira 32
MAN.
Races or Men 32
Density or Population 34
Man's Culture 34
Government and Religion 33
Industbiks 36
Agriculture 37
Herding 38
Fishing 1)8
Lumbering 39
Mining 40
MANUPAOTURINa 41
Commerce 41
Towns and Crnxs 42
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
PAGE
NORTH AMERICA 45
United States 49
Northeastern Section . * . 63
Northern Section 66
Southern Section 78
Plateau Section 85
i aciflc Section 89
Countries North of the United States . . 93
Countries South or the United States . . 97
Correlations and Comparisons ...... 101
SOUTH AMERICA 103
Correlations and Comparisons Ill
EURASIA 113
Europe 117
Central Europe 122
Southwestern Europe 128
Eastern Europe ... * 132
Asia 135
Correlations and Comparisons 143
AFRICA 145
AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. . 151
COLONIES AND COMMERCIAL ROUTES. . . 154
Correlations and Comparisons. ...... 156
TABLES 157
PRONOUNCINQ INDEX IfiO
Coptright, 1808, by
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
natural adv. axoo.
w. p. 31
GEOGRAPHICAL BULLETIN.
Ihirlian by rail, vi.i Ijtdysmitli, 3711 niiks (Buffjilo
Bloomfijiitcm by mil, 270 miles (Buffalo to Ti.loilo).
I. llafeking, 170 milps (New York
r Port Eli7jvbeth by rail, 300 tiiilcs (Toledo to
■t London by rail, 320 miles (Toledo to Pc'oria).
I Cape Town by rail, 670 niitpa (Tolpdo to Topeka).
I Kimberlpy, 100 inilf« (Kew York to PhiladelpbiaJ.
.0 Cape Town by rail, 600 luiles {l.liii;aj;o to Atlanta),
CUBA.
Physical Features. Cuba is the largest and
most western of the islands embraced iu the
West ludies. The long chain of the West
Iiidita is a partly submerged range of moun-
tains, reaching its highest elevation in Haiti.
The island of Cuba is long and narrow. Its
length is 720 miles— equal to the distance from
New York to Cincinnati; its breadth is 80
miles. Its area, including 1300 beys, or coast
islands, is nearly 46,000 square miles— a little
larger than Pennsylvania.
The irregular coast line has a lengtli of 7000
miles, and is boi-dered by eoral reefs. From
the lowland of the coast fertile meadows and
plains extend inland to the foothills of the cen-
tral mountain system. The longest range of
this system is the Sierra de los Organos, whit.-h
forms the chief waferslied of tlie island. The
general cotirse of most of the rivers is either
north or south.
The Climate is tropical, but is considerably
cooled by the ocean breezes. In the mountain
districts a mild atmosphere pre\'ails. At Ha-
vana the average temperatui-e for the year is
77°.
There are two seasons in the year— a wet
from May to October, and a dry during our
winter. Thunderstorms are fivquent. Severe
tropical storms, or hurricanes, are of almost
yearly occurrence, and are often very destruc-
A Urge saxAT pUnUtion, Cuba.
tive. Eai-tliquakes oceiir in eastern Cuba, but are scWtini felt iu
the western parts.
The Forests cover half the islaud. Of palms tbere are over thirty
species. Among the valuable woods ai-e iiiahogaiiy, ligniiiti-vitR>,
ebony, logwood, and the fragrant cedar of which cigar boxes are
made.
Agricultural Products. The soil is remarkably rich and almost
iuexhanstible. The chief products are sugar cane, introdiiced in
1523 ; tobacco, the best quality growing west of Havana ; coffee,
most productive on the mountain slopes of the east; oranges,
growing spoutuneout^ly in nearly all localities ; bananas, mostly in
the eastern provinces ; and pineapples, momt al)nndant in the west.
During tlie period of pros(>erity there were iu Cuba extensive
cattle farms, cotton plantations, orchards, and market gardens;
biit during the late war with Sjiain these were partly or wholly
destroyed.
Hlneral Resources. Neither gold nor silver has been found in
pacing quantities. Rich mines of copper and inm are worked
in the vicinity of Santiago. Near Santa Clara is a large bed of
asphaltum.
The Industries of Cuba are mainly agriculture and the trade
which grows out of it. Except the making of cigars, manufac-
tures were never encour^ed by tlic Spaniards, and there are
mills or factories of impoi-tan
abont 1000 miles of railroad.
The common roads are mostly
little more than footpaths, and
goods are carried by means of
ox earts and mules.
For the purposes of foreign
commerce no other island in the
world, in proportion to its fiize.
has a larger number of excellent
harbors. The principal exports
are sugar, tobacco, tropicalfruits,
molasses, and lumber. The im-
ports are chiefly wheat and flour,
rice, petroleum, and all manufac-
tured articles.
History and People. Cuba was
discovered by Columbus, Octo-
ber 28, 1492, and was named by
him Juana. Afterwards it was
Inland commerce is aided by
known by several different names, but finally retained the title
('uba, wliidi the natives had given it before the discovery.
The first permanent settlement was made by Diego, the son of
Columbus, in 1511. Havana was founded in 1510, was captured
by the British in 1762, and lu 1763 was restored to Spain by the
treaty of Paris.
The tyranny of the captains general appointed by the Spanish
govemmcut to rule the island, together with oppressive taxation
and the deniiU of ^Militit^ul rights, incited five noted rebellions
among the Cubans, the last— the war for independence— Iteguining
in 1895. The war cnde<l with the victx>rj- of the United States
()ver Spain in 1898, followed by a treaty by which Spain relin-
quislu-d her sovereignty in the West Indies, and Cuba passed
into the control of the Uiiiti'd States, {tending the establishment
of a goveniment by the Cubans themselves.
The census of 1887 gave the population of the island as 1,631,687,
of which abont one tliinl were colored. Not less than 300,000
of the people are believed to have perished during the war.
The inhabitants embrace three classes : the creoles, who form the
better daws of native Cubans ; the negroes, who are descended
from slaves ini]>ort«d from Africa ; and the native Spaniards, num-
bering about 30,000.
Education has done; little for the mass of the people, of whom
about 70 per cent are iHit»;rate. Under Spanish rule the Roman
Cath<dic was the only recognized religion in the island.
Cities. WrtcffH«,witli a population of about 200,000, is the cap-
ital and largest city. Situated on a broad harbor of the same
name, it is picturesque by location, an<l by its fine public build-
ings, pleasnr<^- grounds, and parks. Must of tlic foreign trade of
the Island passes through this port.
Santiaijo, in the southcast^u-n part of the island, is the second city
in size and importJin(-e. It has a population of altont 60,000, and
is the center i)f trade for the neighboring intn and copper mines.
Other ini))ortnnt towns are Matamas, on the north coast ; Pinar
del Rio, iu tlio western iHiit; I'lierto Principe and Cienfuegos, in
the central partj and Holguin and MaHzimino, in the eastern part.
PUERTO RICO.
Physical Features. Puerto Rico is the smallest of the four
large islands— Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico— which to-
gether are called the Greater Antilles. The most east«m of tlie
gronp, this island is 13o0 miles in direct line fi-oni New York.
Its area is 3531 square miles, <
1111
i
- -^T w^mMm
1
F J
— V -
Sspresa wagon, Cuba.
about <me twelftli that of Cuba.
Its avemgc leugth is 95 miles;
its breadth, 35 miles.
The mount^iin range travers-
ing the isliiud east and west is
little more than a range of hills,
tlie highest peak of which is
atxmt :«i(ill tV.-t high. Prom
Ihese hills, covered with vegt-ta-
tion, more llian 1200 streams
flow north and south into the
sea. Miiny of them, esiiecinlly
in the north, are rivers of con-
siderable size.
The Climate is tropical, but
more' healthful than that of
Cnba. The averap' t<'inperature
during llie summer niimths is
830; dnring tlie winter months,
76°. The average rainfall is
aboat 59 inches a year. The driest month is Fehraary; the
rainiest is November. Tropical hurricsues are not nncoannon
between July and October.
Vegetation and Agriculture. The native forests have been ex-
tensively cleared, but there still remain in favorable localities
many trees that are valuable for lumber. Among these are the
mahogany, the cedar, tlie walnut, and the laurel. Beautiful dower-
ing treea abound, and everywhere grow cocoanut palms, tama-
rinds, priclily pear^, guavas, mangoes, and many trees and shrubs
valuable for medicinal qualities.
The liills may be cultivated to their very tops. Bananas are
the most coiumon and profitable product. Oranges, times, cocoa-
nuts, and pineapples also grow in great abundance.
Coffee is a lea<ling product, the trees thriving best on tlie bill-
sides at an elevation of a thousand feet or more. More than
34,000,000 p<)unds of coffee are produced annually. Sugar cane
is grown on the uplands, yielding about 140,000,000 pouiul.s of '
sugar annually. The lowlands produce tobacco to the i'xt*nt of i
7,000,000 pounds a year. Rice is cultivated on the hillsides, and
is the main food of the laboring classes. Indian corn is native to
the island.
Large herds of cattle are pastured on the lowlands, and many
cattle are exported. Horses of a small breed are also raised. Fowls
CoHm pUntatioa, Puerto Rico.
are abundant, and bee keeping produces a large amount of honey
for export.
Animal Life in Pnerto Rico embraces no wild animal more for-
midable than the armadillo, and no reptiles that are poisonous.
Insects thrive, and include centipedes, scorpions, ticks, aud mos-
quitoes.
The Mineral Resources of the island are not extensive. Copper,
iron, and lead exist, but not in paying quantities. Coal has been
found, aud salt is obtained from saline lakes near the seashore.
Commerce. A railroad around the island has been planned, and
137 miles of it are in operation. Five hundred miles of telegraph
lines are in use. Wagon roads are much better than in Cuba, and
a fine macadamized highway connects San Juan and Ponco.
The principal harlHtrs are those of San Juan and Arecibo, on the
north ; Ponce, Arroyo, and Guayanilla, on the south. The chief
exports are coffee, sugar, tobacco, and honey. The value of all
exports in 1895 was $14,629,494.
History. Pnerto Rico was discovered by Columbus on his sec-
ond voyage, November, 1493. The natives called it Borinqnen.
A garden in Ponce, Puerto Bico.
In ITiOS Ponce de Leon visited the island, was c.hnrineij with the
beauty of the place and with tlie gentle, hospitable people, and
soon after founded the city of San Juan Bautista, where he built
his palace. The people, who numbered over half a million, were
reduced to slavery, and when they rebelled the Spaniards swept
them out of existence.
The island was afterwards slowly colonized by Spanish immi-
grants, who were compelled, from time to time, to defend them-
selves against the English and the Dutch. In 1870 Puerto Rico
was organized as a province with seven departments. Slavery had
existed from the first settlement, but was abolished in 1873. After
the Span isli- American war of 1898, the island was ceded by Spain
to the United States.
People. Tlie latest census showed a population of about 800,000,
of whom more than 300,000 are negroes. Tlie blacks are descended
from former slaves, live in miserable bamboo huts, and have little
disposition to work. The whites are mostly of Spanish descent,
and include the small landowners of the country districts, and the
still Iiigher class of large planters and traders.
Education has made little advancement, and but a small pro>
portion of the children attend the five hundred schools provided
for them. There arc a few secondary schools and colleges, under
the control of the Roman Catholic Church.
Cities. San Juan, the capital, surrounded by a massive wall, and
couspieuous by its stately public buildings, presents an imposing
appearance, situated as it is on one of the finest harbors in the
West Indies. The private dwellings are mostly of one stor\' and
are flat-roofed. The city is provided with electric light, gas,
and ice works, and there are small factories for malting brooms,
matches, and soap.
Ponce, the second city of the island, is on the sonthem coast,
sixty miles from San Juan. It contains an ice factory and gas
works, and has a population of about 15,000. Arecibo, on the
north eoast, is the center and shipping i>ort of the sugar industry.
Mayaguez, on the west coast, and Aguadilla, iu the northwest, are
important commercial towns, Fujardo, on the east coast, and
Arroyo, in the southeast, are important sugar-making towns.
The Minor Puerto Rican Islands. The islands of Mona,
Cnlebru, and Vieques are politically united to aud dependent uiK»n
Puerto Rico. Mona lies in the strait of the same name, between
the islands of Puerto Rico and Haiti. It is seven miles in length
and two iu breadth, aud its shores are bordered by steep white cliflfe
170 feet in height, aud full of grottoes or caves.
A Urge sng«r pUnUtion, Cuba.
tive. Earthquakes occur iu eaeteru Cuba, but are seldom felt iu
the western parts.
The Forests cover half the islaud. Of palms there are over thirty
species. Among the valuable woods are mahogany, liguum-vit«,
ebony, logwood, and the fragraut cedar of which cigar boxes are
made.
Agricultural Products. The soil is remarkably rich and almost
inexhaustible. The chief products are sugar cane, introduced in
1523 ; tobacco, the best quality growing west of Havana ; coffee,
most productive on the mountain slopes of the east; oranges,
growing spontaneously in nearly all loctilities ; bananas, mostly in
the eastern provinces ; and pineapples, most abundant in the west.
During the period of prost>erity there were in Cuba extensive
cattle farms, cotton plantations, oreliards, and market gardens ;
btit during the late war with Spain these were partly or wholly
destroyed.
Hineral Resources. Neither gold nor silver has been found in
paj-ing quantities. Rich mines of copper and iron are worked
in the vicinity of Santiago. Kear Santa Clara is a large bed of
aeptialtum.
The Industries of Cuba are mainly agriculture and the trade
which grows out of it. Except the making of cigars, manufac-
tures were never encouraged by the Spaniards, and there are no
mills or factories of importance. Inland commerce is aided by
about 1000 miles of railroad.
The common roads ate mostly
little more than footpaths, and
goods are carried by means of
ox carts and mules.
For the purposes of foreign
commerce no other island in the
world, in proportion to its size,
has a larger nmnber of excellent
harbors. The ])rincipal exports
are sugar, tobacco, tropical fruits,
molasses, and lumber, The im-
ports are cliiefly wheat and flour,
rice, petroleum, and all manufac-
tured articles.
History and People. Cuba was
discovered by Columbus, Octo-
ber 28, 1492, and was named by
him Juana. Afterwards it was
kuown by several differeut names, but finally retained the title
Cuba, which the natives liad given it before the discovery.
The first permanent settlement was made by Diego, the son of
' Columbus, in 1511. Havana was founded in 1019, was captured
I by the British in 1762, and in 1763 was restored to Spain by the
i treaty of Paris.
I The tjTanny of the captains general appointed by the Spanish
government to rule the island, together with oppj-essive taxation
j and the denial of political rights, incited five noted rebellions
among the Cubans, the last— the war for indei)eiidence— begiiming
i in 1895. The war ended with Hie victory of the United States
over Spain in 1898, followed by a treaty by which Spain relin-
quished her sovereignty in the West Indies, and Cuba passed
into the control of the United States, pending the establishment
of a government by tlie Cubans tlieniselves.
The census of 1887 gave the population of the island as 1,631,687,
of wliieh about one tliird were colored. Not less than 300,000
of the people are believed to have perished during the war.
The inhabitants embrace three classes: the Creoles, who form the
better class of native Cubans ; tlie negroes, who arc descended
from slaves imported from Africa ; and the native Spaniards, num-
bering about 30,000.
Education has done little for the moss of the people, of whom
about 70 per cent are illiterate. Under Spanish rule the Roman
Catholic was the only recognized religion in tlie island.
Cities. i/ffCrtHfl, witli a popiilation of about 200,000. is the cap-
ital and hirgest city. Situated on a broad harbor of the same
name, it is picturesque by location, and by it* fine public build-
ings, pleasure grounds, and parks. Most of the foreign trade of
the island passes through this port.
Santiago, in the southeastern part of the island, is tlie second city
in size and importance. It lias a population of about 60,000, and
is the center of trade for the neighboring iron and copper mines.
Other importtmt towns ai*e Matam<is,ou the north coast; Finar
del Rio, in the western part; Puerto Principe and Cietifuegos, in
the central part ; and Holguin and ManzaniUo, in the eastern part.
PUERTO RICO.
Physical Features. Puerto Rico is the smallest of the four
lai^ islands— Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and Puert-o Rico— which to-
gether are called the Greater Antilles. The most east»m of the
group, this islaud is 1350 miles in direct line from New York.
Its area is 3531 square miles, or about one twelfth that of Cut>a.
Its average length is 95 miles;
its breadth, 35 miles.
The mountain i-ange travers-
ing the island cast and west is
little more than a range of hills,
the hifjhe.st peak of whii'h is
alwut 36(10 fff't high. From
tlicse Iiills. covered with vegeta-
tion, nuive than 1200 streams
fiow north and south into the
sea. Many (»f them, especially
in the nortli, are rivers of con-
siderable size.
The Climate is tropical, but
more healthful than that of
Cuba. The a\erag<' tem])eratitre
during the sumTiior nitmths is
83°; during the winter months,
76°. The average rainfall is
L'^g|#M|
'^B ''-^^^^xM 1 ^^E
£zpieM wagoa, CutM.
about 59 inehes a year. The driest month is Fehraary; the
rainiest is November. Tropical hurricsues are not nncommoa
between July and October.
Vegetation and Agriculture. The native forests have been ex-
tensively cleared, bnt there still remain in favorable localities
many trees that are valuable for lumber. Among these are the
mahogany, the cedar, the walnut, and the laurel. Beautiful fiower-
iug trees abound, and everywhere grow cocoanut ])alms, tama-
rinds, i)riekly pears, guavas, mangoes, and many trees and shrubs
valuable for medicinal qualities.
The hills may be cultivated to their very tops. Bananas are
the most common and i>ruiitable product. Oranges, limes, cocoa-
nuts, and pineapples also grow in great abundance.
Coffee is a lemling product, tlie trees thriving best on the hill-
sides at an elevation of a thousand feet or more. Mure than
34,000,000 jKUinds of coffee are produced annually. Sugar cane
is grown on the uplands, yielding about 140,000,000 ptnnid.s of '
sugar annually. The lowlands produce tobacco t» Che extent of i
7,000,000 pounds a year. Rice is cultivated on the hillsides, and
is the main food of the laboring classes. Indian corn is native to
the island.
Large herds of cattle arc pastured on the lowlands, and many
cattle arc exported. Horses of a small breed are also raised. Fowls
CoHee pUnUtloD, Puerto Rico.
are abundant, and bee keeping produces a large amount of honey
for export.
Animal Life in Puerto Rico embraces no wild animal more for-
midable than the armadillo, and no reptiles that are poisonous,
luseots thrive, and include centipedes, scorpions, ticks, and mos-
quitoes.
The Mineral Resotiices of the island are not extensive. Copper,
iron, and lead exist, but not in paying quantities. Coal has been
found, and salt la obtained from saline lakes near the seashore.
Commerce. A railroad around the island has been planned, and
137 miles of it are in (iperation. Five hundred miles of telegraph
lines are in use. Wagon roads are much better than in Cuba, and
a fine macadamized highway connects San Juan and Ponce.
The principal harbors are those of San Juan and Arecibo, on the
north ; Ponce, Arroyo, and Guayanilla, on the south. The chief
exports are coffee, sugar, tobacco, and honey. The value of all
exports in 1895 was $14,629,494.
History. Puerto Rico was discovered by Columbus on his sec-
ond voyage, November, 1493. The natives called it Borinquen.
A gArden in Ponce, Puerto Bico.
In 1508 Ponce de Leon visited the island, was ibiirmed with the
beauty of the place and with tlie gentle, hospitable people, and
soon after founded the city of San Juan Bautista, where he built
his palace. The people, who numbered over half a million, were
reduced to slavery, and when they rebelled the Spaniards swept
them out of existence.
The island was afterwards slowly colonized by Spanish immi-
grants, who were compelled, from time to time, to defend them-
selves against tlie English and the Dutch. In 1870 Puerto Rico
was organized as a province with seven departments. Slavery had
existed from the first settlement, but was abolished in 1873. After
the Span ish-Ameri can war of 1898, the island was ceded by Spain
to the United States.
People. The latest census showed a population of about 800,000,
of whom more than 300,000 are negroes. Tlie blacks are descended
from former slaves, live in miserable bamboo huts, and have little
disposition to work. The whites are mostly of Spanish descent,
and include the small landowners of the country districts, and the
still higher class of large planters and traders.
Education has made little advancement, and but a small pro-
portion of the children attend the five hundred schools provided
for them. There arc a few secondaiy schools and colleges, under
the control of the Roman Catholic Church.
Cities. ^» Juan, the capital, surrounded by a massive wall, and
eouspicuous by its stately public buildings, presents an imposing
appearance, situated as it is on one of the finest harbors in the
West Indies. The private dwellings are mostly of one story and
are flat-roofed. The city is provided with electric light, gas,
and ice works, and there are small factories for making brooms,
matches, and soap.
Ponce, the second city of the island, is on the southern coast,
sixty miles from San Juan. It contains an ice factory and gas
works, and has a population of about 15,000. Arecibo, im the
north coast, is the center and shipping jiort of tin; sugar industry,
Mayagufz, on the west coast, and Aguadilla, in the northwest, are
important commercial towns. Fajardo, on the east coast, and
Arroyo, in the southeast, are important sugar-makiug towns.
The Minor Puerto Rlcan Islands. The islands of Mona,
Culebra, and Vieques are politically united to and dependent upon
Puerto Rico. Mona lies in the strait of the same namf, between
the islands of Puerto Rico and Haiti. It is seven miles in length
and two in breadth, and its shores are bordered by steep white cliffs
170 feet in height, and full of grottoes or caves.
THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
Physical Features. The Hawaiian Islands lie in the Pacific I
Ocean, about 2500 miles southwest of SaD Fracoiseo. The is- |
lands of this group are eight ia Dumber, and the chain extends
in an irregular line from northwest to southeast, between
about 18° and 23° north latitude. The area of the seven in-
habited islands is 6545
square miles, or about
two thirds that of the
state of Vermont The
largest island, Hawtui,
is twice tlie size of Del-
aware I Oahu is half as
large as the state of
Rhode Island.
The wliole ehain con-
sists of a series of vol-
canoes, all now extinct,
except tiauna Loa and
Kilauea, in the island of
Hawaii. Mauna Kea.
in the same island, has
an altitude of 13,805
feet. Tlie mountainous
surface of the islands is
everywhere broken by
vallejs and running
streams, but there are
no rivers.
Of mineral products
there are none exeejit
those whicli occur in
volcanic regions, such
as siilj>hur, copperas,
and niter.
The Climate is warm,
the air is pure and
agreeulilp, being re-
freshed by the north-
east friule winds, and
the teniperiiture, seldom
rising above SS'^; is
ma<le equable by the
vast siimmnding ocean.
The avenigo yearly rain-
fall is (ibout 50 inches,
uUhi)u<;h in the island
of Hawaii it reaches
200 in.-hes.
Vegetation and Ani-
mals. Tlio windward
mountain slojies and
vullrys iirii covered with
a<[cTise triipicul growth,
and (he fiirests contain
much viihialjle timber.
The more useful indig-
enous trees and plants
include tlie screw pine,
the cocoanut, the cau-
dlemit, used for liglit-
iiif^, the breadfruit, the
liainiua, and the won-
derfully nntritive tan>,
llic ])i'iiLei{>id food plant
of Hic uiitives.
Pigs, dogs, and rats are found, bat have been introdnced by
man. There are snipes, plovers, ducks, and a few singing birds.
Imported goats and cattle have increased into wild herds. The
only reptile is a small lizard.
Industries. As yet there is no extensive m&Dnfactnritig, and
agriculture is the main occupation. Sugar cane is the most im-
(wrtant crop, and siittar makiui;
is the leading industry. Coffee.
which grows on the elevated
lands, is the next important prod-
uct, and 18 rapidly increasing m
importance. Riiie is raised on
marshy flelds by Chinamen.
The common garden vegeta-
bles, peaches, oranges, pineap-
ples, bananas, ttie guava for jelly
—all produce abundantly. Tlif
t.i'a plant, and the ramie and the
tree-fern pulu, both yielding a
fine fiber for weaving and for
cushions, have been suci'essfully introduced. There are large
sheep farms, and the wild cattle arc killed for their hides.
The Hawaiian I.slands are of great commercial importance
to the United States, and Houolnlu is in direct line of vessels
plying between the Pacific coast and China, Japan, and Aus-
tralia.
History. The Hawaiian Islands were discovered by Captain
Cook in 1778, and by him were named Sandwich Islands, in honor
of the English earl of that name. Cook and the natives were on
friendly terms until he unintentionally ofFended against their
religious customs, when they killed him, in 1779. In 1820 Amer-
ican missionaries began their labors in Oahu, and to them is
largely due the rapid advance in civilizing the islands, and in
promoting education.
The islands were governed by cliiefs and monarchs until 1893,
when the queen was deposed, and the group was formed into a
republic. In July, 1898, the Hawaiian republic was annexed to
the United States.
The People, according to the latest census of the islands, number
109,020. Of this total abont 25,000 are Japanese ; 20,000 Chinese ;
15,000 Portuguese ; 2000 British ; and over aOt-C Americans, who
are the ruling class.
The natives, called Kanakas, are gentle, intelligent, and brave,
but, owing to the radical change in their customs, they are rapidly
decreasing in number.
Otiiui College bnilding, lUwAiiAii la.
Cities and Towns. HmoMu, the capital, having a population
of about 30,000, is situated on a plain on the south coast of Oahu.
The harbor is more than a mile long, and admits the largest vessels.
The city contains substantial government buildings, churches, and
handsome residences ; also several planing mUls, rice mills, and
iron works.
Hih hat* about 12,000 inhabitants, is beautifully situated on the
island of Hawaii, and is next to Honolulu in importance. On the
west aide of the same island is Kaukaho, near the place where Cap-
tain Cook was killed, anil where a monument stands to his memory.
On Maui, the most important town is Lahaina; and Wailuht,
Kahului, and Spreckehnlle are flourishing villages.
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
Physical Features. The Philippines are east of Indo-Chiua,
and iiluiut (JOO miles southeast of China, from which they are sepa-
rated by the China Idea. The most northern point in the group is
in abijut the latitude of southern Cuba, and the most southern
point is only 5J° from the equator. The length of the archipelago
is 1000 miles ; the greatest width
640 miles. The land ai-ea is
about 115,000 square miles.
Vai-ions estimates have placed
the number of these closely
pa(;ked islands at from 480 to
2000, Luzon and Mindanao in-
dnde more than half the area of
the whole group. The surface is
generally broken by mountains
of volcanic origin. There ore
many water courses, the largest
rivers being the Rio Grande in
Luzon and the Rio Agusan in
Mindanao. Each of these two
rivers is over 200 miles long.
The Climate is purely tropical,
and there are.three seasons ; the
cold, with a temperature of 77° to 80°, and extending from No-
vember to March ; the hot, from March to July, reaching a tem-
perature of 100°; and the wet, from July to November, during
which period torrents of rain fall. Violent hurricanes, or typhoons,
visit the northern islands.
The Hineral Resources have been but little developed. In
Luzon are granite, limestone, and marl. Coal has been found in
Luzon, Cebu, and Negros, C<)pper is abundant in Luzon, where
also is exeeUent iron ore. Gold, lead, mercury, and sulphur have
been discovered.
The Forests contain a variety of valuable trees, among which
are cedar, ebony, ironwood, logwood, and teak. The cocoanut
palm is everywhere, and bamboos, rattans, mangoes, jaekfruit, and
all Malayan fniits grow in abundance.
Agriculture is the prevailing pursuit, and its chief products are
sugar cane, coffee, and the famous Manila hemp, a fiber obtained
from a species of banana. The finest sugar is produced in Panay ;
and the total yearly export of sugar is 250,000 tons.
. Coffee grows in all the islands, and rice is the common food of
the natives. The cacao bean, brought from Mexico, and Indian
corn, introdu<'ed from America, with cotton, pepper, ginger, and
vanilla, are other products of importance.
The Wild Animals include the white monkey, deer, wild cat, alli-
gator, turtle, boa, python, and various kinds of snakes, of which
only one is poisonous. Of birds there are 200 species, and there
The buflalo is tht beut of all work.
ai-e numerous beautiful huttoi-flit'e nml deBtnK-tive'aHtB. The wild
buffalo is tamed and is the beast of all work. Huiall hor.ses, c^attle,
and sheep, derived from Europe, aud gloats, are raised ia targe
herds and docks.
Manufacturing by machinery has never been developed, but
handicraft is carried on by the natives witli skill and art. They
weave cotton, and from the silken fiber of the piua plant make the
most delicate lace. In Manila women are employed in making
hats, mats, cigars, and cigar cases.
Commerce within the islands has suffered from the want of
roa^ls, and there is but one railroail— that in Luzon, 123 miles
long. Foreign commerce centers in the main porta wliere export
products are gathered, Manila ranking first.
History. The discovery of the Philippines is due to Magellan,
who on the first voyage by white men across the Pacific, in 1521,
landed at Cebu, Here he joined the friendly ruler iu an attack
apoD Ills enemies, and was killed.
For nearly 400 years the Philippines were subject to Spain.
Growing discontent under the tyranny and oppressive taxation of
Spanish rule incited the more civilized natives to insurrection,
Thich broke out in 1896. During the war between Spain and the
United States, in 1898, Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet
in Manila Bay, and upon the conclusion of the war the entire
group of islands was ceded to the United States.
People. The largest part of the population is of Malay descent,
embracing the Tagals of Luzon and the Visayans occupying several
islands south of Luzon. Both of these classes adhere to the
Roman Catholic Church. Another class of Malays is the piratical
Moros, who are Mohammedans. A small number of woolly-
haired negritos, descended from the original inhabitants; very
man}' distinct and nearly savage tribes inhabiting different is-
lands ; over 30,000 Chinese, with numerous mestizos ; and abotit
20,000 pure Spanish, mostly in Manila— all together make up
a population estimated at 7,000,000. The number of dialects
spoken is said to be about 500.
Cities. Manila, the capital, is a wailed city of 150,000 inhab-
itants, Bituat«d ou a large bay of the same imme. It is the main
port for foreign commerce, aud has nmny modern inipn>v('nieuts,
including paved streets and electric lights. CariU, 15 miles from
Manila, is a naval and ntilitur}- station. JloiJo, in the island of
Panay, is the second city of imiHtrtniu-is and has a largi^ tnule in
sugar. Cebu, capital of the island C'ebn, is a well built city of
;!5,0(H) iwople. Seveml other cities and towns ha\-e populations
ranging fnmi 1000 to 20,0(H» each.
GUAM is the largest and most populous of the Ladnmes, dis-
covered by Magellan on his famous voyage, and so immed on
aecount of the thieving habits of the natives {hidroties is Spanish
for 'thieves"). These nntivea, enslaved and oppressed by the
Sjianiai'ds, were finally exterminated, and were succeeded by im-
migrants from Mexico and the Philippines. Guam is important
only as a naval and coaling station.
WAKE ISLAND is an atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, between
liuani and tln' Hawaiian Islands. It has no inhabitants, and was
seized liy the United States in 1899 for a coaling station and
cable lauding.
TDTUILA is one of tlie three largest of a gi-otip known as tLe
Samouu or Navigator Islands, lying abotit 14° snuth of the equa-
tor and nearly 3000 miles east of norlhera Australia. The in-
habitants are a well-built, straight- haired race, remarkable for
stn'Ugth, bravety, and iutelligencc. For several yeans the Samoan
Islands were governed by their own king, under the joint control
of Gi-eat Britain, Germany, and the United States. By a recent
treaty Great Britain relinquished her claim, and Tutnila was ceiled
to the United States. The island is 18 miles long, fi miles wide,
and is va]ual)le only as a naval coaling station.
PRONUNCIATION OF NAliIES.
Aguidillfi, a-wB.aeryi
Holguin, hol-J6u'
Mftuna Ken, mnu'na ka'&
r*vi(TtoKi.<M.Hfr't6re co
AntilleB, Bn-tn-le;:
Honolulu, hd-n«-ln'la
MminHLoa, mou'iiiito'ft
Kii> Agtisioi, re'u Aim "an'
ArMibo. a-ra-Be'bo
Hoilo, 6-16-§'l6
Mayaguez, ml-jL-liweB'
KioliroinU-, re'.'i grUn'.li
Arroyo, ftr-ro'jo
Jnana, hw&'nil
HiD'laiiao, nien-l^utl'o
Kainoii, sH-iiiO'U
CaviW, ka-v6-ta'
Eahului, kB-hu-lu'e
Mono. mo'nK
Snn Juan, siiiiliq-Hn'
Cebu. thS-ba"
Kauhako, kou-h&'kO
Kilauea, li6-lou-a'ft
Moro. tno'rii
Santa ClHni.au'tii kla'rtl
CienfnegoB, Be-Sn-fwfi'gda
Negri!... .ir-Kri'to
Santin^'.l. Biiii-riHi-g.-.
Culebra, ku-18'brS
Ijadronea, la-dronz'
Negros, flS'ETOB
Si.>rra Ai' los OrgiinoH, se-Si'is d« 14p
Fajardo, f6-hiir'do
Lahaina, IB-hi'iift
Oahii. oJi-hu
dr-Kil'li08
GnBin, gw&m
Luzon, Iu-z6n'
Panay, i)&-iii''
Tacnl, IH-gal'
GuByBiiilla, gwi-il-n61'yil
Manila, ma-ne'la
PhilippWs. ni'IiMiiz
Tiiluilji, tii-tu-c'18
Havana, ha-vln's
MaiizanUlo, mau-Bii-nel'yB
Hnar dul Rio, ]«-tiilr' .151 re'c
Vieques, vr-ii-kilN
Hawaii, hS-iri'S
Matarzas. mft-Uu'zuB
'once, poii'thii
Puerto Principe, pwer'to prfu'w-pa
Yisuvnn, vP->l'an
Hil<>,W10
Maui, mou'fi
Wailuku, wi-lu'ky
NATURAL ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY.
THE EAETH AS A WHOLE.
THE EARTH.
FORM AND SIZE.
Long ajro iH'oplti believed the earth to be flat, but there
are seveiiil ways by wliicli we know that its surface is
curved (1) when a sliip sails away from us, wo can see
the sails and the tops of the masts long after tlie lower
part of the ship is hidden from view j
y^ ~^~~" (2) people liavo traveled in one general
/ direetioii entirely around the earth to
/ ^^^A the place from which they started;
I M^^fflln ^^ when the earth passes between the
^ '"^^^t^Wm ^"^' ^^^^ ^^^ moon, tlie earth's shadow,
^^B^kK^^w which fidls on the moon and darkens,
^^^^^^^ or eclipses, it, is seen to be always
i-ound. As a sphere is the only body
whose shadow is always round, we know that the earth
is spherical.
a stone from the
r If a man who
The earth U not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened on two
opposite sides, so that its shape is Bomenhat like that o£ an oranire. A
body with such a shape ia called a spheroid. The earth is so slightly
flattened, however, that we may think of it as
t, perft'Ot sphere.
The diameter of the earth, or the distance
Ihroush its center from side to side, is about
8000 miles. The arcumferenet of a sphere, or
ttie preatest distance around it, is about Z\
times its diameter. Abont how many miles
are there in the circumference of the earthf
We are likely to wonder why the people and
loose objects do not slide off from the round
tarth or drop away from the other side of it. If you
prounil and then let go of it, what happens to the
lives on the ojipoaite side of the earth lifts a stone and then l«ts go of
it, which way do you suppose the stone fallsf
On every part of the earth's surface heavy
bodies if unsupported fall toaiird the ground.
The earth has the power of puIUng objects
toward itself, and the pull is so strong that it
keeps loose bodies close to the earth's surface.
This wonderful power is culled gracitij.
Tests. How do we know that the earth's
surface is curved I How do wo know that the
shape of the earth is spherical t What is a
spheroid? Defliie diameter i circumference.
What is tlie size of the earth t What is gravity » Of what use ia it »
Optional Supplementary Work. For wluu is Magelhtn fuujuust
A fast steaniship sails about 500 miles a day ; how lung would it take
tu sail the greatest distance around the earth t
'E ?r,.^. ,
THE ElABTH AS A WHOLE.
ROTATION.
The earth is always rotating, or spinning, slowly upon its
ahortest diameter, or axis. The rotation of the earth is im-
poi-tant to US in several ways.
Day and Night. The sun and moat of the stars are so
hot that they send out light as a piece of white-hot iron
The surfaces of the moon and the earth are so cool
that, like a piece of cold iron, they
give out no light of their own. The
stars are so far away that tliey give us
very little light It is only the suii-
lighted pait of the moon that appears
bright. From what does the earth get
most of its light t About how much
of the earth is lighted at one time I
What causes day and night to follow each other I
The line between the light half and the Jark half of the earth may be
called the sunrise and sunset tint, becanse it t^ when places arc carried
by rotation across this line that the sua appears to rise or to eet.
Time. The speed at which the eai-th rotates never
varies; hence the earth always occupies the same amoniii
of time iu making a complete mtation. This amount of
time is called a day,* and for convenience it lias been di-
vided into twenty-four equal parts called hours, which
are subdivided into equal parts.
Clocks are simply machines to indicate the speed of
the earth's rotation in such a way that we may easily
determine these subdivisions of time. In ordinary clocks
the hoar band is made to move twice around the dial
while the earth is toraing oace upon its axis.
Direction. The earth always rotates in the same diree-
tioD. This direction is called east, from an old word mean-
ing "dawn" 01" "morning." As the earth turns eastward
the SUQ appears to move across the sky in the opposite
direction, which is called west, from an old word meaning
v»,. "evening." Why are these names ap-
propriate t North is the direction on
the earth's surface from any place to
the end of the earth's axis called the
north pole, while south is the direction
to the other end of the axis, called the
south pole. If you stand facing east
your left side is toward the north pole,
atid your right side toward the south pole. What direc-
tion is called northeast t What direction, northwest t De-
fine some other inteimediate directions.
The earth moves so slowly that it is hard to tell at once which way it
is turning, but there aro several easy ways to find north, Bouth, east, or
west, and when one direction is known the others may be found.
* The exact time rpquirei] for one uoinplele rotation of the earth ia a aiiicreal
day, and is measure)) by timing the return of a star to the same position on huc-
oeasive nights. There are 366!^ aidereal dayn in a yeiir. In ordinary affairs ot
life 1T0 use the mean solar da;/, whic^h is the averace time ocoupied hy the smi
in retumiug to the same position over the earth on succeasivo daytt. The
mean BolaF tlay ia about four minutea longer ttiaii the sidereal day, and iu-
oludes a little more than one complete rotation of the earth. There are but
WSii mean solar days in a year.
(1) Abont the 21st of Karoh and ^ 2bt of September the sun riaei
the east, and sets exactly in the west. Observe from your
home the precise directions in whiuli tba
sun rises and sets during the third week
in September. During our sommer
months the sun is exactly in the ea.<t
shortly after riang, and exactly in the
west diortly before setting. During our
winter months the sun rises sonth of
east, and sets sonth of west.
(2) Inourpartof the world the Sim ia
never exactly overhead; that is, in the
tenilh. When highest in the sky it ia
always doe sonth ot the zenith; hence
in our country shadows oast by the aim
at noon point exactly north. Observe
this at noon to-day or to-morrow.
(3) One star is nearly in lino with the
earth's axis, and would appear directly
overhead to a person at the north pole.
It is called the Pole Star or the North
Star. In our country it may be fonnd
any clear night by the aid of the two
stare called " the pointers " in the group
of seven stars called the Dipper, Try to find the North Star to-n^L
The direction along the earth's snr^ace toward this star is north.
(4) The directions may be found very closely at any time by means of
the compass. This is a little bar ot magnetized steel, called the magnetic
Ensineer's compass. Kariner'a compass.
needle, balanced on a pivot so that it ean swing freely. When Uie
needle comes to rest it always points to a plaoe near the north pole.
Tests. Define axis; polos; rotation. Explain day and night. Define
a day; its divisions. How is a clock related to rotation f Name and de-
fine the chief directions. Oive four ways ot finding them.
Supplemental Work. Mnstrate the sucoessiou of day and night by
means ot a ball and a candle. If your house fronts south, are the sunny
rooms at the front or at the back t Why t
ROTATION, Concluded.
Try to deseribe the position of the cross on the left-hand sphere below
so that a person can locate a cross in exactly the same position on the
other sphere. Since a sphere Is equally curved in all directions, and has
no comer or edge from which to measure in locating points on its surface,
it would be very hard to describe the location of points on the spherical
earQi, were it not tor the earth's rotation.
Location. The turning of the earth gives to it an
axle, and the ends of the axis, or poles, afford two fixed
points from which we may locate any other place on the
surface. We imagine an east and
west line drawn around the earth
halfway between the poles. This
line is called the equator^ Ijecause
it divides the earth's surface into
equal parts — a northern and a
southern half, or hemisphere.
To locate a place in a north
and south direction, we indicate
its distance north or south of the
equator. This distance is called latitude. Places north of
the equator are in north latitude ; thoSe south of the
equator, in south latitude. All places on the same side of
the equator and at the same distance from it are in the
same latitude. A line connecting such places is parallel
with the equator, and so such a Une is called a parallel
of latitude. Any number of such parallels may be drawn.
The dotted lines in the diagram
represent parallels.
At all places on the same north
and south line noon occurs at the
same instant A north and south
line extending from the north pole
to the south pole may therefore
be called a mid-day line, or merid-
ian. We may imagine a meridian
to pass through any place on the earth's surface. The
meridian which passes through
Greenwich, a part of London, is
called the prime meridian.
A place is located in an east and
west direction by indicating the dis-
tance of its meridian east or west
of the prime meridian. This dis-
tance is called the longitude of the
place. The dotted lines in the dia-
gram represent several meridians.
Thus we can describe the exact location of any place on
the earth's surface by stating its latitude and longitude ;
that is, its distance north or south of the equator, and its
distance east or west of the prime meridian.
How Latitude and Longitude are measured. The equator and the
parallels extend entirely around the earth, and are circles; the meridianB,
which extend from one pole to the
other, are called half circles. We
therefore ase circular measure in
reckoning latitude and lon^tade.
In oiroolar measure a complete
circle is divided into 360 equal
parts, called degrees (°). How many gt
degrees are there in the equator T
How many degrees in ea«h parallel 1 How many degrees in each me-
ridiant How many degrees distant from the equator is the north polet
The south pole t
As latitude Is measured north and south from the equator, degrees of
latitude are numbered from the equator to the poles. Thus a place
north of the equator and distant one degree from it is sud to be in lati-
tnde one degree north, and a place south of the equator and distant 10°
from it is in latitude 10° south.
Put your pencil on the parallel of 10° south latitude in figure A. In
what latitude is the nortli pole f What is the latitude of a place whose
distance from the equator is one third the way bom the equator to the
pole 1 What is the latitude of a place halfway from the equator to the
Dorth polet Put your pencil on the parallel of 30° N. Lat.; 20° 8. Lat.
Show where the parallel of 45° N. Lat. should be drawn.
In figure B the north pole is represented as tilted toward the observer,
so tliat the whole of several parallels near the pole are brought into view,
and we can see that they represent circles. On this figure put your
pencil on the parallel of 80° N. Lat. Follow this parallel through its entire
length. What is the highest latitude that a place can havel
As longitude is measured east and west from the prime meridian,
degrees of longitudo are numbered east and west from that meridian,
halfway around the earth. How many degrees are there in half the dis-
tance around the earth T Hence the meridian of 180° east longitude is
the same as the meridian of 180° west longitude. How far around the
earth is it from the prime meridian T
In what longitude is a place that is one fourth the way round the
earth west from the prime meridian T Put your pencil on the meridian
of 90° west longitude ; 30° eaat longitude. Locate a point in Lat. 20°
N. and Long. 40° W. Locate an-
other in 35° N. and 65° W.
Several paralleb are usually
drawn on maps, sometimes as
straight lines, but generally as
curved lines, as shown in this
diagram, and the distance of each
in degrees from the equator is
marked on the side margins of
the map. Several meridians are
also usually drawn on maps, and
the distance of each in degrees
east or west of the prime me-
ridian is marked on the top and
iHittom mai^ns of the map.
Tests. What is the equatort How does its location depend upon
rotation t What is a hemisphere T What are parallels 1 Meridiuis 1
What is latitude t Longitndet How are they measured T
Supplemental Work. On a clay ball draw the equator, parallels, and
meridians. Through how many degrees does rotation carry each merid-
ian in an hourl When it is noon oii any meridian, what time is it on
the meridian fifteen degrees to the east f Thirty degrees to the westi
One degree to the east T When it is noon on any meridian, in which di-
rection, and how many degrees distant, is the meridian on which it is
6 A. U. 1 3 p. M. T 3 A. M. t 12.20 P. M. T
TOPICS FOB ORAL OS WKITTEN SBVISW OH THE EABTH.
I. FoRU. Apparent; real.
II. Size. Definition and length of diameter ; of circumference.
III, GEAvmr . Facts about it ; use.
IV, Rotation. Four things depending on it; explanation of each.
THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND.
9
THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND.
THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
The surface of the earth is uot perfectly smooth and
evenly curved. Some parts bulge out slightly, forming
ren'ians of elevation, while other parts nro sUghtly sunken,
funning mgions of depression. The i-egions of depression
are completely filled and ciovered to a gi-eat depth with
salt water wlueh forms tiie sea, while parts of the regions
of elevation protrude above the sui'face of the sea and
form the land.
Haps of the Hemispheres. Ba<^h of tho mapa at the top of the op-
posite page sliows one half of the earth, or a htimisphi^n.'. 'i . , bhiu color
repn'sentx the t<ea and the othiT colon represent t)ie laud. In there more
8ea or land on the eartii's surface I From the t*blo on p. 157 estimate
tho proportion ot each. MoKt of the land in the world lies in three great
continuous masacs, or continents ; the remainder consists of many small
masses, or islands. Because one of the continents was discovered by
sailing westward, it is called the Western Continent, and the aide of tlie
world on which it is situated is called tbo tcesUm heminphere. The
Oppo^te ude of tlie world, or the eastern beuiisphere, containB two
ooutinenta. The larger ia called the Eastern Continent. What is the
name of the smaller?
Name the two gratul diidsionn of the Western Continent. By what
isthmus, or narrow neck of laud, are they connected T What group of
islands lies between these grand divisioua? What large island is north-
east of North America T What island near Qreenland is partly in the
eastern and partly in tlie western hemisphere f
The Eastern Continent, Uke the Western, is at one place nearly sepa-
rated into two parts by arms of the sea. What isthmus connects these
parts T What grand division is southwest of the Isthmus of Suez t The
grand division to the northeast is Eurasia; but Europe, the western part
of Eurasia, is usually considered as a grand division, and Asia, the east-
era part, as another grand division. What islands are near the coast of
Europe 1 A small part of Asia extends into the western bemUphete;
by what strait, or narrow passage of water, is it separated from tho
Western Continent I
Australia, though really a continent, is sometimes called an island,
and sometimes a grand division. What island group, or archipdago, lies
between Asia and AustraliaT
In which grand division do we liret Examine the table on p. 167,
and make a list of the grand divisions in the order of their size.
What is the name of the part of the sea surrounding the south polar
region t From this broad expanse of sea great oceans extend northward
between the continents. What ocean extends northward between Amer-
ica and Africa T Between Africa and Australia f Between Australia
and Americal Which of these oceans is largest! Which is narrowestl
Name the branch of the Atlantic Ocean which surrounds the north
pole. From the table on p. 157 make a list of the oceans in the order
of their size.
Supplemental Work. Make a map containing an island, an isthmns,
a strait, and an archipelago. Model these forms.
THE COKTINENTAL PLATEAU.
The Star-shaped Hap. If we peel one half of an orange m gores,
and then turn back the skin, as in the pictures to the right, we bring the
skin of the whole orange into view. On the same principle a single map
showing the surface of the whole round earth may be drawn as at the
bottom of the opponte page.
The north pole is represented at the center of the map ; hence north
on this map is toward the center from all sides, and the direction of the
earth's rotation, or east, is shown by the arrow points. The northern
hemisphere is included in the latest continuous circle, which marks
the equator, and the surface of the southern hemisphere is represented
as divided into gores and turned up from below to form the six points.
In this map the blue tint represents the sea, and the land is colored
green and buff.
Find the Arctic Ooean on the star map. What two grand diviaons of
land neariy surround the Arctic Ooean 1 With what ocean has the
Arctic a broad oonneotion 1 With what ocean is it connected by Bering
StiaitT What is a straitl Put your penoil on the islands Oreenl&nd,
Iceland, and the British Isles. Find South America; the West Indies;
Africa; Australia; the East Indies; the Indian Ocean.
Regions of Depression and of Elevation. In the part
of the sea which is represented by the darker blue, the
water is very deep, in some places more than five miles,
but it has a general depth of about two and one half miles.
This is the true region of depression on the earth's surface.
The lighter blue represents places where the sea is much
shallower, the water being less than one mile deep. If the
surface of the sea were to sink one mile lower than its
present level, what would this light blue region become t
How would this affect the number of continents! The
parts of tho sea colored dark blue would still have an
average dejtth of one and one half miles. Thus not only
the land surface but also the bottom of the shallower part
of the sea {colored light blue on the map) may be consid-
ered as forming a single great region of elevation.
Continental Plateau. Any broad region of elevation
may be called aplateau; and, as this great region of eleva-
tion contains all the continents, it is called the continental
plateau. Besides the continents it embraces all the large
and many of the small islands of the world; hence these
islands are called continental islands. The continental
plateau stretches across the northern hemisphere. In how
many places does it extend into the southern hemisphere t
Near the north pole, and again between Eurasia and Australia, the
water of the sea extends entirely across the continental plateau, forming
great continental seas. Continental seas, as shown by the dark blue areas
in them, are very deep in places, but their deep places are separated from
the great depths of the oceans by the submer)^ edge of the conti-
nental plateau. What is the name of the northern seal In the other
sea, part« of the plateau are hi^ enough to appear above the water and
form a large group of islands. What is this group called t Find two
places where the water extends nearly across the plateau, forming three
continental seas and a deep gulf. Name them. What grand divisions
do these bodies of wat«r separat« t
There ia reason to believe that in past ages the surface of the conti-
nental plateau has been at times h^her and at other times lower than it
now is. Much of the present land was once so low that the water flowed
over it, forming continental seas, and parts of the plateau now covered
by water were once so elevated as
to connect land masses now sepa- ^^^ ^^
rate. Thus the Gulf of Mexico once ^^^^ ^^^k
extended much further north over ^^^^^^^^^^
the central part of North Amer- ^^^^^^^^H
ica ; Australia and Asia are thought to have once been connected by land,
which sank until now the islands of the East Indies alone remain above
water; animals may once have walked from North America to EarasiB
by land, where now the Arctic Ocean forms a water barrier.
10
THE EAETH AS A WHOLE.
Almost tL& the land in tlie VoAA is «ml)rft06(1 in the Aontltientnl plateau ;
but there are msmy very snuill islanda in the uidat of the ocottiis and far
from the shores of the uoalinents. Thetie are (.^alk-d oceanic islaridg. They
6ave probably never been connected with the coutiuontal plateau. In
which ocean are many ooeanio iijlandsf
TOPICS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OP LAND AND WATER.
I. Continental Plateau. Position, Continents. Continental n
II. Islands. Continental. OceHuic.
III. The Sea. Position. Depth. Oceans.
HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS.
The siii-faco of the land slopes gnuhially upward fi-om
the sea, and in a few plai-es reiwlios hoij!;lits ot tibotit five
miles, liut its geiuTiil heif^lit is a little lesM than lialt' a mile.
All parts of tbe laud below this j^verage height may
t the Maine coaat.
re bordered by
A Ijonregian fioid.
therefore be called lowland,
while all higher parts luiiy be
called highland.
Upon the star map and other phys-
ical maps in this book the lowlands
are eolorod gr^en, and the higlilandx
buff. Which side of the Western
Conliuent is mostly hiKblandt Which
side is mostly a brond lowland 1 To-
ward which ocean is thi' hi{rhlaiid
»de of the Western Continent T To- ^ promoDtoiy
ward which oceans are most of the
highlands of the Eastern Continent? Which oceans
the broad lowland sides of both continents T
The Great Highlands. The high side of the couti-
nental plalemi is the side toward the Pacific and Indian
oceans. These highlands contain the highest and most
rcgged pavts of the earth's surface. They are almost
continuous, forming a great horseshoe-shaped curve from
Cape Horn to Cape of Good Hope. Where are these capes I
Trace a route between these capes that shall lie on the hijrlil*''<l <'^
muoli as possible. At how many places must the route leave the high-
laudsT Name these placoa. These low places divide the gre-at curve of
hi(;hliiii(is into nalunil sections, one for each grand divifiion of the land.
The Broad Lowlands. On the outside of the highland
eurve the slope is comparatively short and steep to the
shores of the Pacific and Indian oceans. On the inside of
the horseshoe, however, the slope is long and gradual to
the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Those oceans are thus
bordered by broad lowlands, broken only by comparatively
small and disconnected areas of highland, and even these,
as a rule, are not very high. Point out some small dis-
connected higlUands.
Is the Aastralian branch of the continental plat<tau hi|j:h or lowt
About half of it is covered with water, Wlint island group occupies this
part? The highest side of this part is toward the Indian Ocean and
forms an almost coutinnous chain of islands between Asia and Aus-
tralia. Toward which ocean is the highest aide in Australia il^ielfl
This rim is uot very high, and most of the coutiuent is lowland.
Tests. Define lowlands ; highlands. Where an; tlie great hifrhlands
of the continenUit pUitenuT The smaller areas of highluud I Describe
tlio two chief slopes of this plateau.
Supplemental Work. Modid a plateau with i\ sliort, alirupt slope
on one sidu, aud a long, gentle slope on the oilier.
COASTS.
We have learned that during jiast ages the surfaee of the cuntineulal
plateau has been at limes higher and at other times lower than at pres-
ent. But upward or downward movements of the earth's surface are
not eonlined to the jiast; Ihey are still taking piiux in mo^t parts of the
tcorlil, though so slowly that we seldom notice them. The movement
may be only a few inches or a few feet in a hundred years.
In some regions old buUduigs which long ago st^iod on the coast
and near the level of the sea are now several feet above sea level and
sfime distance inland, showing that those regions have slowly risen above
Ihe ae.i. In other regions old buildings are now found partly covered
by the sea. WImt does this show f
Sinking Coasts. The sur-
face of Ihe land is seldom ex-
actly smooth or level. It is al-
most always broken by higher
places,or hills,iind interveuinj;
lower plaees,ori'«fcys. There-
fore, when a coast region is
siowlysinkingbeneathlhesea,
!ong or wide iivnjs of the sea
Ulandfi oO the Maine coast.
gradually creep up the valleys, extending far irjto the land.
They form tjitlfs or bays if they are wide, and Jiords or es-
tttaries if they are long and narrow. The higher parts of
the coast are left projecting into the sea between the in-
dentations as great masses or narrow fingers of land,
THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND.
u
called peninsulas. The ends of some such peninsulas form
high capes, or promontories. Some peninsulas are cou-
ueuted with the mainland only by a naiTow nock of land.
What is such a neck of land called t By the continued
sinking of sucli a uoast the water may at last overtiow a
low isthmus. Into what will this transform the liigher
parts of the peninsula t
Thus a sniklmf coast is rrrtf
likrti/ to be irrcifiil'ir, much
broken by baijs tntd /icuin-
sulat!, and perhaps frintfcd
with islands.
Rising Coasts. The bot-
tom of the seu is mui'li
Sock layera aUnding on end, DUh.
smoother and more nearly
Sevel than the snrfat^e of the
laud. It has long and gi'ail-
ual slopes, but very few
short and steep slopes sue))
us make ordinary hills and
valleys. Tht-re/ore, when the
smooth sea bottom alont/ the
risint/ margin of a continent is brought above the surface of
the fca, it usually makes a comparatively even and rcyular
coast line.
Which is more even aod regular, the coast of America wliieh l>ordcrs
the Atlantic anil Arctic oceans, or tliat which borders tho Pacific Occau T
(star map, p. 8.) The Arotic and the nortliem parls of tho Atlantic
Ocean coasts of both the Eastern and the Western Continent are very
irregidar, and are in ^ueral bordered by lowlands. Long stretches
of these coasts are slowly sinking.
On the other hand, the Pacific coast of America is quite even and
regular, and is closely bordered by highland. Uuch of this coast is
being slowly upheaved.
The Pacific and Indian Ocean coasts of tho Elastem Continent arv
more irregular than the Pacific coast of America, and are bordered in
places by broader areas of lowland. It b probable that parts of these
coasts are sinking, and that other parts are rising.
Tests. How do we know tliat portions of the earth's surface have
varied in elevation 1 Explain the effect of sinking on a coast; the
effect of rising.
Supplemental Work. Draw a map showing a gnlf or bay, a
peninsala, and a cape. Model in a pan, with clay or putty, an Ldand
having a ri'guhtr coa^t line but an irregular surface. Show, by pour-
ing water into the pan, how the unking of the island would make
the coast quite irregular.
UPHEAVAL OP HOUNTAms.
Level Rock Layers. In many places the land has been
raised so evenly that its rouk layers have been but little
disturbed and are still nearly level. This is very likely to
be the case in lowland regions.
Folded locit Uyera, HaryUnd.
Rock Folds. In other places the layers have lisen in
long waves or folds, as though the region htul been
crowded into less width by enormous side pressure. In-
stead of being level, these layers of rock slant at all
angles, or even stand on end. They are bent and broken
across, and at tho cracks, or faults, they have slid up or
down or over each other, as shown at the bottom of tlie
page. Such disturbance of the rocks is common in tho
highlands and is nearly always found in mountain regions,
for most mountains are nothing ftat the harder parts of these
rock folds left projecting high above the surrounding country ;
the softer parts having been gradually worn off and washed
away by the rain and the streams.
One fold, if its top has not been greatly worn and washed away, may
make a single lino, or range, of mountains, as in the picture above.
lUiutrating parallel ridges fonaed by worn rock folds.
If the top of the fold has been worn away, tho projectijig layers of
harder rocks in its two sides may form nearly parallel rnnt^us of niuun-
tains. Point to tho parallel ranges in this diagmni ; lo the vallrys between.
As a single fold may thus produce one or more ranges, and ns there
arc ofteu i>everal foUls side by side, mountains usually ociur in roughly
parallel ranges The Inli[\^dual ridges niay not be \ er\ long, i)ut parallel
ridgis may coulinue, and thus a single rtgion of lolded locks mij pro-
duce a sories of miigi s, fomimg a great tmtimtain chain or nyntem
several thousand miles long
Folded and broken oi faulted rock Uyers, Tennessee.
12
THE EAETH AS A WHOLE.
The lava %TM<^h Issnen from the volcano generally acCTUnalateB aronnd
it into a gieat ooEelike liiU or niountain, called a voloatue cone. Through
tliis tlie throat, or dud, of the \'olcano leads to a cup-shaped opeiUDg, or
crater, near tlie top.
Au eruption of lava may last for weekB or motitha, and then years may
pass before another eruption lakes place. After perhaps centuries of
such occasional oetivity, tin' eniptifina of a volcano may cease entirely.
The volcano is then said to be extinct.
Nobody knowR what causes volcanoes, but they are supposed to be one
of the results of the upheaval or the Biuking of the earth's surface, the
eaiistti of whioh is likewise unknown. Lava from active or extinct vol-
canoes is found in nearly every mountain region where the rocks are
greatly diaturbed, anil most of the active volcanoes occur near the Pacific
marijiii of the continental plateau, where the rising of the earth's surface
is supposed to be now going forward most rapidly. But volcanoes also
occur on the sea bottom, in the ^re&t
" j re^on of depresMon, far from the
^-.^A^ I continental plateau. Here they build
^^. "^- ' up huge cones, whose tops mark the
location of all oceanic islands.
Au extinct volcano : Mt. Sluata, California.
Earthquakes. The ris-
iiig or the sinking of the
land, atid the folding and
breaking and slipping of the
rocks, have been going on
foi- ages, a very little at a
time. Each break or slip
has caused a jar, or earth-
quake, which may have been felt for many miles around.
Earthquakes are common in all parts of the world, but
are most frequent in the great highlands and along the
margin of the Pacific Ocean. In tltese regions, therefore, it
is thought that upheaval is now taking place most rapidly.
Volcanoes. At many places iu the world, steam and
white-hot melted rock, or lava, occasionally issue out of
the earth. Such places are called volcanoes.
Sometimes the lava issues quietly and fiows in great
streams over the sm-rouuding country, where it cools into
sheets of hard lava rock. Generally, however, there are
terrific undergi-ound explosions of the steam, which hurl
the melted lava high into the air, where it cools and falls
over a wide region, as a rain of rocky fragments.
These explosions are generally so violent that they jar
the whole region about the volcano, and henee explosive
eruptions are frequently accompanied by earthquakes.
Tests. What is a mountain ; a
range ; a system t Explain earth-
quakes. Define volcano ; its features.
Where are many volcanoes 1
Supplemental Work. Find out
sonietbiug about the Charleston earth-
■luake of 188G. Read about the de-
struction of Pompeii In Baldwin's
Readers, 5th year.
TOPICS ON EFFECTS OF UPHEAVAL.
I. Continental Plateau. Continents. Grand divi^ons. Con-
tinental islands.
I!. Surface Movements. Speed. Results: on surface; on coapt.
Indications : volcanoes ; earth'iuakes.
III. Surface Form.'i. Great highlands : location ; siiape ; divisions.
Slopes: short; long. Broad lowlands : location; extent.
THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND.
THE ATMOSPHERIC AGENTS.
Erosion. As soon as any part of the se;i bottom is raised
above the water, it is exposed to the changes of the weather
and the action of the winds; that is, to atmospheric agents.
It is also exposed to the action of water in its various
forms. These are constantly at work, slowly but surely,
breaking up the solid rocks, and moving the material
A little Tolcano in fjiHffnif^ sbowliig an old outflow of lara which by damming a valley caused the formatioa of two lakes.
THE WEARING AWAT OF THE LAND.
13
by wind-blown aoud, Colorado.
down the slopes of the land. This work of the atmos-
pheric agents and of water is called erosion. It results in
the gradual weariug away and loweting of the surface
of the laud.
Detritus. To a slight depth the surface of tlie land is
warmed or cooled as the weather changes. With each
change of temperature it expands or eontracts veiT
slightly, but with sufficient force to loosen gi-aiiis from
tlie exposed surface of
the luirdest rocks, aud
often to crack off larger
fragments. Rain water
8k)wly dissolves and
carries away the cement
which binds together
the grains of many
rocks. When rain water
freezes in crevices of the
rocks, it expands and
pries off pieces of stone,
which slowly crumble
under the effects of heat
and cold. Sand, blown
bj' the wind against tlie
rocks, wears their sur-
face and finally may re-
duce them entirely to
powder.
By the operation of these processes of weathering, the
surface of nearly all parts of the land is kept covered with
a layer of detritus composed of the coarser or finer frag-
ments of the solid rocks.
Near the anrface, this layer of detritus is generally quite fiae and is
mixed with decaying animal and vegetable matter, forming soiL At
greater depths the rock fragments are larger, while deeper etill is the
solid bed rook. In some places the detritus accumulates many feet deep.
In other places it is removed by the rain and wind as fast as formed.
In which of these places do you think the solid rock beneath the detritus
will crumble away more quickly T
Morement of Detritus. Wlienever disturbed, the soil
particles move most readily down the sloping surface.
Why I These tiny particles are almost always being
slightly disturbed by such causes as the splash of rain
drops; their own expansion and couti-action as the
weather makes them warmer or cooler; the expansion of
freezing water in the soil ; the action of the wind ; worms,
insects, or other animals; and the growth of roots beneath
them. As a result, the detritus is very slowly but cease-
lessly moving down the slopes of the land. The movement
is fastest on steep slopes, slower on gentle slopes, and
slowest of all on the nearly level surface of ]ilains.
By reason of this movement we find the foot of nearly every /
cliff and steep hill covered^with a laUia, or aprou of detritus,
which has traveled more quickly down the steep slope
above than it could travel over the flatter land helow. ^ a.
It has therefore accumulated about the toot of
the hill, flattening its lower alope and
making it merge gradually into
the plain.
Devils Lake, Rocky HonDtaiiu, abowing talna al<^>ea.
Winds. The winds are powerful agents, not only in
wearing away the solid rocks, but in moving the detritus.
What causes the clouds of dust which yon sometimes
seet What is dustt Strong winds may carry coarse sand
and keep larger fragments rolling and tumbling along the
ground. In this way both the moving fragments and
the surface which they strike are woni away.
Are dnst clouds more likely to rise from dry or from wet places f
From bare regions, or from regions covered with vegetation ! In dry or
desert places and on sandy seashores an enormous amount of sand and
fine rocky mntorial is kept constantly in motion by the wind.
niuBtrating movement of di
Sand dnne on tbe ahoie of Lake Michigan.
it is blown into dome-shaped hummocks or into great billows, and often
into long ridges, or diineg, two or three hundred feet high.
The sand grains of such hills are blown up the slope exposed to the
wind, and drop down on the sheltered
slope ; thus the hill gradually ad-
vances in the direction in which the
wind blows. In regions where this
movement of dunes has threafened
the destruction of fertile farms, the
advance is checked or stopped by planting the dunes with coarse grass
or other vegetation. Why does this check the movement I
Atmospheric Moisture. From every moist surface in
the world, but mostly from the extensive suiface of the
sea, water is nearly always rising into the atmosphere in
the form of invisible vapor. This process is called evap-
oration. The vapor, mingled with the air, is cairied about
by tlie winds, and thus mncli of that from the sea is
brought over the land. The impurities in water are left
behind when it evaporates; therefore, though sea water
is salt, its vapor is fresh and pure.
14
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
Wlen vapor-laden air is chilled, part of its invisible
vapor condenses into minute drops of water, which can be
seen. If it is chilled by coming into contact with cold
vegetation, we may find the vegetation covered with dew.
What is dew f When the vegetation is so cold that the
vapor condenses into little ice crystals, we have hoarfrost
instead of dew. If the vapor-laden air is chilled at some
distance above the earth, countless tiny drops or ice crys-
tals appear in the atmosphere, forming a cloud. What is a
cloud called that hangs close to the earth? If the air
about a cloud grows warmer, the tiny cloud drops or crys-
tals may evaporate and disappear, but if it continues cool
they may unite into larger drops and fall as rain, or into
flakes which may fall to the earth as show.
Tests. Define attnoapherio agents; erosion; detritus; soil; talus;
dunes. How is detritus formed 1 How are soil parttcloB disturbed f
How do dunes travel? Define vapor; evaporation; dow; hoarfrost;
dond; mist; nin; snow. How does evaporation affect the purity of
water T
Supplemental Work. Observe at a road cutting or new-dug cellar
the layers of rock, earth, and soil. Bring to school in a bottle a speci-
men of each placed in order. With colored crayons sketch the layers
which you saw. Put a i^old plate into the steam from boiling water and
show that vapor condenses into drops wiien chilled. Boil some s^t
water. Condense some of the vapor. Taste the water thus obtained.
Writ« an account of the experiment and tell what il proves.
GROUND WATER.
Much of the rain or snow water that reaches the earth
sinks into the ground, penetrating not only the detritus
hut the solid rock beneath, often to a great depth. An
enormous amount of water is thus contained in the ground.
However dry the sod may be at the surface, it is usually
kept moist at a slight depth by this gi'ound water. It is
the ground water that supplies all wells.
Springs. Part of the ground water from the higher
lands creeps veiy slowly through the earth to the lower
lands, where it may bubble forth at the surface as a spring.
The distance which the ground water thus travels may !«
many miles, so that the journey may require weeks or
months. If no rain or snow should fall on the higher
lands, aU springs would gradually decrease and finally dry
up. Some surface springs do disappear in dry seasons,
but the flow of deeper-seated springs is jwrmanent, be-
cause the ground water creeps so slowly through the earth
that the supply is not exhausted before rains or snows
replenish it.
rooks, prevent the ground wat«r trom
rising to the surface. In sucli re-
gions an artificial outlet to Iho poroua
rooks is sometimes openMl by bor-
ing from the surface of the lower
land tlirough the close-gndnod rock.
The pressure of the water in the
porous rock then forces the water
up the opening to the surface, thus
forming an artificial spring, or or-
leniaH irrll.
In re^oiis where the rocks arc
greatly disturbed, the ground water
may follow some folded layer of
porous rock to great depths, whera
it rnmcs iu contact with heated rocks,
and it may then reach the surface as
a hot Kpring. In some springs the
water is so hot that, as it nears tbe
surface nn<l the weight of overlying
wtiter becomes less, part of it, at
short intervals, flashes into steam,
which throws the rest of the water
high into the air, like a little water
volcano. Such spouting hot springs
are called geysers.
Work of Ground Water.
Ground water creeps along so
slowly, and passes through sneh small pores in the rocks,
that it can carry along with it very little detritus; hence
spring or well water is generally clear and limpid, though
it usually contains mineral matter which it has dissolved
from the rocks through which it has passed.
Some spring water contains so much dissolved mineral
matter that, though clear, it has the taste of salt, or of
iron, or of sulphur. Such a spring is called a mineral
Old Faithful Geyser, Wyoming.
ninstmtlne arteaian weUs,
In this diagram the ground water from the higher land has completely
filled the pores in the coarse-grained rockc beneath the neighboring
lower lands, and yet no springs have been formed. This is because the
■1*nt.ing layers of oloae-grained rook or clay, which lie above the porous
ipring deposita of basins and terraces, Wyoming.
sprtHff. Hot water dissolves the rocks much more readily
than cold, and consequently when the water of hot
springs reaches the suiface it contains much mineral
matter.
While such waters cool, or as they evaporate, much of this mineral
matter is deposited about the springs in the form of basins, terraces,
icicte-tike pendants, and other beautiful forms, which are often highly
oolored.
THE WEARING AWAY OP THE LAND.
15
Stalactites aod atalAgmitea, Luray Cavern, Va
Limestone is eahil\ diisolvpd find in rep hi'. Mmi|«ised of Mirli rock
the undertrrouud waters often <1w^)1m Imip dimtids and niakt irreat
cores or mr^rn* mam miles m extent \\ iter in wliiili hme is dissoUcd
tnckles tlirouph tin ronfs of tho'-e ca\erns where part of it L^a[>orateH,
wbde the rest drops down to the floor below jind there evaporates. Does
the water on evaporating earry with it the lime it contains 1 Thus
there gradually grows downward from the roof, like an icielc.a slnlaelite
of glistening lime crjstals, while' from the floor l>eneath a slnhiiimiU
gradually grows upward until they niay meet and form a eontiiiuous
column. Occasionally a part of the roof of a cavern hreaks in, forming
a link hole in the land al)ove. In time the entire nx>f falls in, tran^
forming ttie cavern into nn upt^n gorge or valley ; but over this a small
part of the roof may remain fur a time to form a natural bridge. A nat-
ural bridge may also be formed by the washing away of softer rock from
beneath an ontfluw of hard lava.
Iron, gold, silver, copper, and other metals are dissolved from the
rocks by ground water. One or more of them may be collected and de-
posited in a rock fault or fisBure, Some of the richest mines in the
worid are in twins formed in this way.
Tests. Define and explain the formation of a spring; an artesian
weU ; a mineral spring ; a geys<.>r ; a vein ; a cave ; a natural bri<lge.
Supplemental Work. Find out about the geysers of Yellowstone
Park, uid about Mammoth Cave or Luny Cavern.
STREAMS AND LAKES.
Streams and Stream Basins. Nearly every spt-iug is
the beginning, or source, of a stream of water wliicli flows
from it. Water flows to the lowest place that it can
reach, and therefore
a stream usually flows
along the bottom of
a valley, the two
sides of which slope
downward toward the
stream. As the stream
advances it is generally
increased in size by
other streams, or
branches, which flow
into it from either slope
of tile valley.
Tlie Hiulssi^ ilTer iTatem.
Natural bridge, Yellowstone Park, Wyoming.
These branches may have their sources in springs, or in hanks of melt-
ing snow ; or they iiuvy flow only during wet weather, carrying the down-
fall of a iiassing shower to the more permanent, spring-fed streams.
By the flowing together of many streams as they ad-
vuiK'e down the sides of a great valley, there is formed,
along the bottom of the trough, a mighty stream, or river,
which, after a coui-so of perhaps hundreds of miles, may
Anally reach tlie sea. A river with all its branches is
called a river system, and the great valley drained by the
system is ^.'alled the river basin. .
Lakes. If a stream meets a dam or barrier across its
valley, it spreatis out above the baiTier, forming & pond or
lake of still water. The inlets, or streams flowing into a lake,
must raise its surface until the water can escape over the
barrier befoi'e an outlet stream can flow from it down the
valley below the dam.
Water is almost always evaporatlDg from the surface of a stream.
When a stream widens to form a lake it loses mneh water by evapora-
tion. In a dry region a lake, before its surface is raised high enough to
form an outlet, may lose as much water by evaporation as is supplied by
its mleftf. Such a lake of course can have no outlet. In general, when
we find a lake with no outlet we may know that the climate is very dry
and evaporation very rapid. Why!
We have leameil that spring water usually contains minerab which
it has dissolved from the rocks. Salt is plentiful in the rocks and is
very easily dissolved, and hence the water of spring-fed streams nearly
always contains this mineral, though so little that we do not taste it. If
a lake loses water by evaporation only, the saltand all the other minerals
brought in by the inlets gradually accumulat« until the lake water be-
comes very salt and bitter. Therefore, as a rtilc, a lake that luu nn outkt
is sail, while an outlet, by prentnting much mineral matter from collecting in a
lake, usually keep" its irater fresh.
Some rivers flow into a r^on where the atmosphere is so dry and
evaporation so rapid that the rivers grow smaller and salty as they ad-
vance. They may finally disappear entirely, while n e-oating of salt is
left on the dry beds by the last of the water that evaporates.
Tests. Define slrt
inlet; outlet. Ezpjai
.ni; source; branch: river; system; basin; lako;
the formation of salt lakes.
Supplemental Work. After a rain, And in i
tem of streams; sketch it ; and model its basin.
road or field a little aya-
THE WEARING AWAY OP THE LAND.
17
DIVmES AND SLOPES.
Divides. Any region fi-om whicli the land slopes down-
ward ill two opposite <iirections is called a water parting,
or divide, because the water which falls on it is diWded,
part of it flowing down one slope and part down the other.
The crest of every mountain range is a divide, and so too
is the crest of every im-
perceptible swell of land
— from both the surface water flows in ojtposite dii'ectioiis.
Every sti-eam basin is partly surrounded by a divide, from
which water flows down into the stream, and by which the
basin is separated fvoiu adjoining basins.
Slopes. The streams whidi rise in tlic gi-oat highlands'
of the world (p. 10) flow down toward the Atlantic and
Arctic oceans on one si<le, toward the Pacifii* Ocean on
another side, and toward the Indian Ocean on the third
side. The highland region may therefore be said to sep-
arate the continental plateau into three main slopes: (1)
the Arctic-Atlantic slope; (2) the Pacific slope; (."!) the In
dian Ocean slope. The crest or meeting of any two of these
slopes may be called a continental divide.
South America. Be^aning with Cape Horn, trace the continontal
divide throagb South America. Which slope of the gmnd dl^1s on is
the lai^erT What four large river syi^temg drain this slope f Wh> are
there no large river systems on tbe I^ifin slope 1 Do yon find any
lakes witihout outlets in this grand diviaiiin 1 What do th(>y indicate T
Nortll America. Trace the continental divide through North
America. Is the Arctic -Atlantic slope or the Pacific slope the larger!
Name five great river systems on that slope. Name three on the Pacific
slope. Why are these smaller than the sj-stems on tbe other slope I Do
you find any dry regions in the grand divbion 1 How can you lell them 1
Eurasia. Trace the divide at the top of the Arctic- Atlantic slope of
Eurasia. Trace the divide between its Pacific and Indian Ocean slopes.
Which of these three slopes is the largest T Which contain the largest
river systems 1 Name seven river systems on the Arctic- Atlantic slope ;
four on the Pacific ; tour on the Indian Ocean slope.
Salt Lakes oi Eurasia. Do yon find any lakes in Eurasia vhich have
no oatletl Name three river systems which flow into such lakes. These
are all large rivers, and the lakes which they form are the largest salt
lakes in the world. Many years ago Lake Aral overflowed into the Cas-
pian 8ea, and the Caspian Sea was connected by a strait with the Black
Sea and thus with the waters of the Atlantic. But a slow upheaval of
the land raised a barrier between the Caspian and Black seas, and tbe
climate is so dry that the Volga cannot raise the surfnce of the Caspian
to tbe top of this barrier. How does tbe dry region of Eurasia compare
in size with the drj- regions of America t
Africa. Trace the continental divide through Afnca Which slope
is the larger? Which contains tlie greater iivyr sjstemsT Name four
river systems of the Atlantic slope ; one system of the Indian Ocean
slope. What large part of Africa is quite dry T Thi<( rei,ion is so dry
that in crossing it the Nile River becomes smaller than it is nearer its
source. Erylain this.
Australia. Trace the continental divide through Australia. Which
slope is the largerl What river system is on this slope ! As a whcde, is
the GODtJuent moist or dry ! Why do you think so t
After comparing the slopes of each of tiie grand divisions, state which
of tbe three main slopes of the whole continental plateau is in your opin-
ion the largest. Make a list of the large river syst«ms on each of the main
slopes of the continontal plateau. How do they compare in number t
Supplemental Work. Draw a map of an island containing several
river ayBtems, and show by dotted lines the divides between them.
Sfodel two river systems with a low divide between them.
WORE OF STREAKS.
Valleys. Running water is constantly picking up par-
ticles of earth and caiTying them downward iti its cuirent.
In wet weather every stream ia made more or less muddy
by the load of detiitus that is washed into it; but even
in dry weather some particles are carried or rolled along
by the current.
These particles, by striking against the sides and bottom
of a stream, gi'adually wear them away, even if they are
composed of the hardest rock ; thus each stream is con-
stantly cutting its valley deeper.
Meanwhile the sides of every valley are gradually weath-
ering into detritus, which i-oUs or is washed down into the
stream below and by it is eanied away; thus the valley
gradually grows wider.
These processes are very slow, but they are contiimous
and have been going on for untold ages. By them all the
valleys in the world have been hollowed out or formed.
ninstrating the enMion of valleys.
Highland Valleys. A swift stream can carry more
detritus and wear away- its bed more rapidly than a
stream with a gentle current. In highlands, where the
slopes ai-e steep, the streams are swift, and so the valleys
are generally deep and narrow. In the western highlands
of onr country, where there is comparatively little rainfall,
the valleys are deepened by the swift, snow-fed streams
Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, Aiizoaa.
which flow in them from the mountains much faster than
they are widened by weathering. Many of these valleys
thus become unusually deep and naiTow and have steep
or precipitous sides. Such valleys are called canyons.
Lowland Valleys. In lowlands, where the slopes are
usually gentle, the cutting power of streams is slight, so
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
A wide aod compuatiTely ahallow valley, New York.
the valleys may be widened by weathering faster than they
are deepened by the streams. Hence, in lowland regions,
the valleys are usually wide and comparatively shallow,
with gently sloping sides. This is particularly the ease in
regions where there is abundant rainfall.
Peneplains. Bat even in dry highlands, tis the canyona are cut
deeper their bottomB approacli nearer the level of tlie sea, and the slope,
ourrent, and cutting power of the streams in them become gradually less,
until the further deepening of the canyon may proceed even more slowly
than the slow weathering of its sides. Thus the canyons will grow wider
and their sides less steep, until eventually all the highlands may be re-
duced to lowlands, with wide valleys and low intervening hills. By a
continuation of the same processes these hills would be gradually worn
away and the region finally reduced to an almost level surface, but
slightiy elevated above the sea, and called a peneplain.
It is thought that some extensive regions in the eastern part of our
country and elsewhere have been thus worn down to peneplains, or
nearly bo, and afterwards upheaved. It is certain that the whole land
surface of the world would finally be thus reduced by the atmospheric
agents, if there were not an unknown force within the earth by which the
land b upheaved. Some regions are thus upheaved after they have been
worn down, other regions are upheaved as fast as they are reduced, and
still other rc^ons are raised more rapidly than they are worn away.
Tests. How are valleys deepened; widened! How are canyons
made; peneplains t
Supplemental Work. Draw a section of a highland valley. Of a
lowland valley. If a stream flows east, and a north and south mountain
raoge begins to rise across its coarse, under what circumstances will the
stream change its course 1 Under what circumstances will it cut a
canyon through the range 1 llake sketches showing the two eases.
STREAM FEATURES.
Rapids and Cataracts. In cutti ng down its bed a stream
may encounter a very hard layer of rock, which retawls
.<?v<^J^>C?x-vvvvy/y
^^^\
^^-
nioatratiiig rapids and cascades.
niustrating cataracts.
Lachine Kapids, St. Lawrence River.
makes a sharp descent at the edge of the hard layer, form-
ing rapids or cascades, or perhaps a cataract.
If the layer of rock is nearly level, the more rapid wearing away and
weathering of the softer rock below may undermine its edge and form a
precipice over which the stream leaps as a true waterfall, or cataract. If
the stream is large enough to remove the fragments as fast as they fall
from the overhanging hard layer, the cataract continues, but retreats
gradually upstream. Whyt If the fragments accumulate below the
fall, however, they finally convert it into rapids or a scries of cascades.
Sand Banks and Bars. When a swift stream enters a
more level region, its cuiTent is cheeked and can no longer
carry so much solid material ; it therefore drops part of its
load of detritus, or sediment. Thus at the mouths of steep
mountain valleys there are frequently formed huge cones
of sediment, or alluvium, which the streams have brought
down from the valleys above but cannot carry so rapidly
over the flatter part of the course below.
In the same manner steeply sloping branch streams may
bring down sediment more rapidly than a gently sloping
main stream can caiTy it off. Part of it is therefore de-
posited near the mouth of the branch, forming temporary
sand banks or bars.
Deltas. When a stream enters a lake or the sea, its cur-
rent is stoppetl and it drops most of its sediment. If the
cuiTents in the lake or sea are too feeble to carry it away,
the sediment accumulates as a very flat alluvial cone at the
mouth of the stream. Part of this cone may reach the sur-
the deepening of the valley above its edge, while the deep-
ening of the valley below continues. Thus the stream i
A smaU cataract, Geoifia
THE WEARING AWAY OP THE LAND.
19
face of the water and be gradually converted into a tri-
aagular tract of marshy land. This impedes the outflow of
the stream and divides it into several channels, through
which it empties. Such a formation is called a delta, from
its resemblance to the Greek letter of that name (A). By
the continued deposit of sediment at the several mouths,
the delta is continually enlarging and advancing further
into the lake or sea.
Flood Plains. The rapid melting of snow, or a continued
rainfall in its basin, swells a stream far beyond its usual
limits, causing it to increase in width, and producing a
Jlood, or freshet. At such times great quantities of detritus
are washed into the stream and so load it with sediment
that its waters become exceptionally muddy. The chan-
nel, where the cuiTeut is swiftest, may carry its jiai-t of
this load, but toward the sides of the flooded stream, where
the current is more sluggish, part of the load is deposited
on the valley floor. This deposit is left as a coating of
niustnitiiig fomuttion of flood plains.
fine alluvium when tlie sti-eam subsides to its ordinary
width. Thus is gradually built up in time of flood a strip
of "bottom land," or a flood plain, on either side of the or-
dinary channel of nearly eveiy stream.
Tbe flood plain deposit oMy become quite deep, and is generally very
fertile, bat it is Bnbject to overflow, for it cauuot be built higher than
the highest floods, and, being composed of alluvium, it wears away
rapidly in time of low water. •
The surface of the flood plain b nearly level, but is often highest near
the channel of the stream. Thus swampy places and sluggish streams,
or bayoua, are formed during low water along the lower, outside edges
of flood plains.
Oxbow Loops. A sand bar, formed in the low-water
bed of a stream, pailly blocks the channel and forces the
current against one of the banks of the flood plain. The
soft alluvial hank is easily washed away, and thus a slight
bend in the stream is fonned (1). The cuiTent always
flows against tho outside of a bend and thus gradually in-
creases it, while sediment is deposited in the more slug-
gish water along the inside bank (2). Thus streams cut
for themselves very crooked low-water channels which
meander back and forth across the flood plain.
In tho lower com-ses of many large rivers which have
wide and deep flood plains, these bends eventually take the
foi-m of great oxbow loops (3). Finally a cut-off is formed
at the uaiTowing neck of the loop (4), which then becomes
the main channel. The ends of the old channel then gradu-
ally fill up with sediment, and the deserted part of the loop
becomes a crescent-shaped pool or lake of stagnant water (5).
Tests. Define and explain the formation of rapids and cascades;
cataracts; sediment ; allnvium; sand bar; delta; flood plain; bayou;
oxbow loop.
Supplemental Work. Draw a diagram and explain why a ledge of
hard rock across a stream retards the deepening of the valley above.
Aletsch glacier, Switzerland.
Formation. In polar regions, and in high mountains
in all latitudes, the climate throughout the year is so cold
that more snow falls than can be melted. The snow thus
accumulates and becomes hundreds or even thousands of
feet deep, so that its weight packs the lower part of the
mass into solid ice, and forces this ice to creep forward,
inch by inch, down the slope of the laud. Such a sheet
of slowly moving ice is called a glacier.
In Greenland and in other regions near the poles, glaciers cover the
entire surface of the land with a continuous or "continental" ice sheet
which nioves downward into the sea, where great fo^ments, some of
them as big as a small mountain, break off and float away as icebergs.
In reg^ions where the lowlands are warm and nhcre snow accumulates
only near the summits of the mountains, the glaciers occnpy the upper
valleys only, creeping down the mountain sides, and many of them melt-
ing away entirely before they leaeh the sea.
nitutrating fonnation of vzbow loops.
Hewfonadland.
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
20
Work of Glaciers. As a glacier creeps forward, tlie de-
tritus under it — sand, stones, and huge masses of rock —
becomes imbedded in the ice and is dragged forward over
the solid rock beneath, scratching, grooving, polishing, and
■wearing away its surface, while the fragments are thcm-
eelves worn i-ound and smooth or ground to powdei.
Thus glaciers in their movement excavate mck l>asins,
widen and deepen valleys, and lower and round the out-
lines of hiUs over which they travel. Much detritus rolls
or is washed upon the surface of a valley glacier from the
Bides of the mountains which rise above it.
All enonnous quantity of ixjcky material is thus carried
by giaciere. If a glacier descends to the sea this material
may be borne away by icebergs and distributed over the
sea bottom when they melt; but if a glacier does not
reiu?h the sea, its rocky load is depositcnl along its melting
end as a great irregular sheet of sand, gravel, bowlders,
and clay, called glacial drift.
If the melting end of a glacier remains long at the same place, the drift
aocnmnlatea into an irregular range uf hilb called a terminal
Bowlden deposited by «a old vallejr gUder in CalifoniiA.
The Glacial Period. Thousands of years ago there was a long period
of time, called the glacis period, when the climate of the northern hemi-
sphere wae colder than at present, and when the glaoiere were much more
extensive. The valley glaciers were larger than tbey now are, and glaciers
were formed where none now exist. From the highland noith of the St.
Lawrenee River, the Laurentian glacier then moved outward in all direc-
tions and covered North America with a continental ice sheet as far south
as the Ohio and Missouri rivers, while another continental ghicicr moved
over most of northern Europe from the Scandinavian peninsula.
When these great glaciers finally nidted away tliey left their work so
deeply impressed upon the stirface of tho Land that it is yet plainly visible.
Unch of each region is deeply covered with glacial drift ; with many
huge rounded bowlders which are unlike any of the neighboring rock
and must have been brought by the ice from a diitanco; and with thou-
sands of peculiar whaleback-shapcd hills, or drumlins ; there are many
great and small rock basins hollowed out by the moving ice slioet ; and
the solid rock of the region, wherever ezpose<], is found to be covered
with glacial scratches and grooves.
In the hollows formed by the glacier, and in the old valleys ia
which the drift formed dams, many lakes collected. Some of these have
been entirely Ailed up by sediment from their inlets, and others have
been gradually emptied by the cuttiug down of their outlet streams.
Thousands, however, remain and make the sites of the old Laurentian
and Scandinavian glaciers the great lake regions of tho world.
Tests. How are glaciers formed t How can their former presence in
a re^^on be detected ? Define glacial drift ; terminal moraine ; drumlin.
Amherst, HisMtchusetta.
WAVES AND TIDES.
ne part of the sea may finally spread
y, and a.i there is seldom a time when
o part of the sea, its surface b nearly
Waves. The wind blowing over any sheet of water
throws its sm-face into wares. Light breezes cause mere
ripples, but storm winds may heave the surface of deep
water into billows as high as a three-story house.
The waves raised by a storm ii
to the shores hundreds of miles a'
strong winds are not blowing in s>
always heaving and tossing in wave.i.
Waves do not affect tlio water to any gn'at depth, but when a wave
enters shallow water its lower part drags on the bottom, while the upper
part, rushing onward, rolls over or breaks, thus forming a ftreater. Little
waves break very close to the shoro line, but big waves drag on the
bottom in much deeper water, and hence may break at some distance
from the land.
Tides. Since waves depend upon the wind, they ant
very irregidar — at times high and fierce, at times low and
gentle. There is another movement of the sea, however,
which is very regular. On the seacoast the water for sev-
eral hours gradually rises, at some places becoming many
feet deeper; then for several hours it gradually falls to
about its former level, when it again slowly rises, and so
ou. This slow and regular lise and fall of the sea is called
the tide. The rise is Jtood tide, and the fall, ebb tide.
Like the earth, the sun, the moon, and the stars possess gravity; that
is, each has the power tA pull loose objects toward itself. The poll is
strongest on objects near these bodies, but it also affects objects at ONjr
distance. Thus the earth itself is affected by the gravity of both the sun
.ind the moon. Though the attraction of the sun on the whole earth
is much stronger than that of the moon, still the moon is so much nearer
us that its effect is more apparent. It causes the surface of the sea to
rise in two low but broad tidal sweUs or waves, one on each side of the
earth.
As the earth rotates, these waves travel over the surface of the sea,
keeping a little behind the moon. When tlie cn-st uf one of these waves
reaches the <roast, it is liigh tide; when the trough between the waves
reaches the coast, it is low tide.
While the earth is rotating, tho moon is moving forward in the sky, so
that the earth has to turn for nearly twenty-live hours to bring the same
'"!in>£»>
= ..»
"V— T-^--
-■:.-
•^•.^
m
'uMnMknnk
ii^*Si^
THE WEARINO AWAY OP THE LAND.
21
point ander the moon again, and during this time two complete tidal
waves pass the point.
Wind waves nttvct the surface water only, and make little or no cur-
rentj but in following the moon arouud the earth the tidal waves cause
powerful currents which extend to the very bottom o£ tlio sea.
In the open sea the tidal wave is so low that it.s passage is inipercep-
tible, but as it advaneea between the headlands <>£ a enast the shallowing
water and the approaching shores force the wave to become much higher.
At the heads of liome mirrnwintf bays it i:< as luueh as ■'SO or fiO feet
high -f on more open coasts heights of from 6 ti> 12 feet arc nsiud.
In some cstunrios and river mouths the drag' of the heightened tidal
wave on the bottom causes the wave to form a bn'akcr, called a bore,
which rushes rapidly up the river and is very daTigorous to shipping.
Work of Waves and Tides. The force with whi.*h
waves dash upon the coast is vciy p-eat. If the shofe is
high and rocky, the waves pick up fi'af,i»t'iits of loosoiied
rock and hurl them against the cUffs, thus loosening other
fragments and underininiiig and rapidly cutting biu'k tin-
fi-ont of the cliffs. The fragments, poundt'd against tlio
cliffs or rolled backward and forward ujion one anotlier,
are worn away, first to pebbles and tlien to fine sand.
Boss Head, on the high and rocky coast of Haine.
Some of the sand is carried out into dit'p water, where
it settles to the bottom, making its slope gentler. But
much of the sand made in this way on exposed and rocky
headlands is can-ied by tidal currents and l>y the wash
of tlie waves into slicltered coves, or to straight stretches
of low and gently sloping coast. There it is thrown upon
the shore to form a sniix)th sand beach. Such a beach is
really a protection to tlie shore, and it is more lasting tlian
a high and rocky coast, whieli retreives the full force of the
waves.
Thus the action of the waves tends to make the coast more
im'iform, by cutting ba<'k and reducing rocky headlands, and
by building out the shore lines of the bays.
Barrier Beaches. Great storm waves break at some distance oat
from the shore line of a low and uniform coast. The sand they deposit
where they break forms a shoal, or hank, which is grailunlly built up
into a bar and by continued deposit may at last reach the surfnee, form-
ing a long line of narrow, san<iy islands, or harrier beaches, fringing
the coast and separated from it by a shallow lagoon.
The lafroon, however, is gnkdually lilled up by the sediment carried
into it by the streams from the mainland, and by the remains of vegeta-
tion that grows along its margins. It is thus converted into a njarsk
and Ihen into solid land, while another line of bari'icr beaches may form
outside; thus the coast grows outward.
Sandy Hook, New Jersey.
Spits and Sandy Hooks. Tidal currents carryingsandar^ constantly
flowing along the toast close to the shore. Such currents flowing out
of a bay are fi-equently turned to the right or the left by meeting other
currents flowing along the coast. Hetn-een such cun-ents is a narrow
strip of still water, in which sand from both currents is deposited.
Thus may be built out into the bay, from one side of its mouth, a long,
narrow gj)i< or gandy hook. Many low capes are formed in this way.
Coral Reefs and Islands. Where the sea water is warm, and not
too deep, and where currents bring plenty of food, hltlo animals called
coral poli/ps live in great cokmies attached to tho sea bottom. The
poU'p extracts from the sea water some of its dissolved lime, and this goes
to enlarge the stony skeleton by which tho animal is attached to the
rocky base of the colony.
When a polyp dies its stony skeleton remains as an addition to tho
base, wliile young polyps appear upon tho base like buds on a tree.
These grow ttnd die, leaving their skeletons behind, and are replaced
by other pol\-ps. Thus by the growth and death of countless polyps tho
rocky base of Ihe colony may gradually bo built up to the surface of the
sea to form a coral re^, which by the beach-forming action of waves and
currents may be raised above tlie water to fonn a iiiial isliiiid.
Long Beach, Florida.
Great Bairier coral reef, Australia.
THE EABTH AS A WHOLE.
Saob coral islands often take the form of rin^ of low Innil vhoDy or
partly surroondinfir abaUow lagoons; such a riu^-shaptxl coral iKiand U
called an aloU. Coral reefs which fringe Die warmer coasts of the oon-
tioents may eventually become part of tiieni, as do barrit;r beaches.
Tests. Define and explain waves ; breakers ; tides -, flood tide ; high
tide ; ebb tide ; low tide ; a bore ; a barrier beach ; a sandy hook ; a coral
reet. Why is high tide at any spot n little later every day 1
Supplemental Work. Bead or recite In^elow's " Higli Tide on
the Coast of Lincolnahire," Kingaley's " Sands of Dee," Tennyson's
" Crossing the Bar," Holmes's '' Chambered Nautilus.''
THE ROCKY LAYERS OF THE LAND.
Thus the atiiiospberic ngents siml moniif; wiiIlt are con-
stantly wearing away the suifaco of the laufl and trans-
porting the material to somp Inkc or to the sea, where
it is deposited on the bot-
tom in nearly level layei-s
of sand, gravel, or mud.
The gravel or sand, being heav-
ier, sinks sooner and is deposited
nearer the shore, while the flnei-
particles which compose mud are
carried farther away from land.
But nearlyall the sediment brought
down to the sea is deposited
within a few hundred miles of
the coast, and «^ith it are mixed
the bones of animals washed from
the land, or of sea animals that die
and sink from the water above.
Earthcr from land almost tlie only
deposits are the shells of sea ani-
mals. There are millions of them.
however, many of them very tiny,
and their deposit gradually makes
6 thick layer of slime, or oore, on
the deep sea floor.
Tear after year layer Is defMiPiti'il
layer, until the weight above, (liik'd |
sibly by heat from within the ta
changes the lower layers into st
again, in whiiih the forms of l
and bones are preserved as fos'iils. T
sandy deposits near the shore become
layers of sandstone; the deposits of
mud and clay become layers of shale oi soai toi e an 1
the oozes become different kinds of Innestone a 1 chalk
which are often little more than a mass of t nv f ss 1
By gradual upheaval these layers of hardened sediments on the sea
bottom become land, and by the pressure and heat produced in the up-
heaval they may be hardened, erj-atallize.i, and changed still further —
thus limestone may become marble ; sandstone, quai-tzite ; and shale,
slate. Somo of the more deeply buried layers may even be melted and
changed to granite or to lava.
In this way have been formed nearly all the solid rocks which we sec.
At some time in the past the material of wliich tbey are composed was
part of an old land surface ; it was worn away and became soft sediment
on the sea floor ; it slowly hardened to rook and was upheaved to become
the present land, which is now being worn away again.
Peat and Coal. Certain kinds of moss and other plants
grow thickly on the surface of fresh water near the shore
in many shallow ponds and lakes. By the interlacing
of their roots they may in time cover the entire surface ot
the water with a floating mat of vegetation. The thick
mat is increased by the yearly growth on top, while
fi-om beneath it pieces of dead vegetable matter fall to
the bottom of the lake, and nocumuiate as a dark mudlike
mass calked imick or peat. This may eventually fill the lake,
converting it into a peat swamp, or hog. The muck, being
partly decayed vegetable matter, makes a good fertilizer,
and when thoroughly dried is also used for fuel.
Thousands of years ago great swamps, somewhat like
the present peat bogs, but containing a vastly moi-e luxu-
riant vegetation, existed in many lowlands. After their for-
mation they were slightly depressed below the sea and wei-e
covered by layers of mud and sand. The sediment gradu-
ally hardeneil to layers of roek, and the peat to beds of
the black stonelike substance which we call coal.
As ihe buried peat slowly changed il gradually became lignite, or
which is much better fuel than pent, while with greater nge
il is changed to true bituminous or ao/l coal, which is still better fuel. If
tliAe beds are greatly folded in upheaval, Ihe heat and pressure hasten
iheir change into coal, and may change them into hard or anthracite coal
o QTaphile, of which lead pencils are made.
Petroleum and Natural Gas. Vegetable or animal
:i!ittci', wliich ages ago wa.^ deeply buried under sediments,
i soniotinn^s l)een gradually changed, not into coal, but
iuto rock oil, or petroleum, and into natural gas. Both of
these suhstanofs also make good fuel. They are obtained
by boring wells through the overlying layers of roek.
Tests. How does ibe
ocean deposit near the
shore differ from the
deep sea dcpodtt WhyT
Explain the formation
of sandstone ; quartz-
ite; shale; slate; lime-
stone ; marble. Of peat;
lignite; bituminous coal;
(lulhracite eoal. Of pe-
troleum ; natural gas.
Supplemental Work.
Bring to school speci-
mens of one kind of rock
and of one kind of min-
eral formed from aniii'.al
u en, and keep the collection in
of he formntiou of one of the
Fossil ferous Umestoae
or vcgetab e n
tl e chool oou
a ter
Label ea h spec
e a lot t
Bptcm ens
TOPICS ON LOWERING OF THE LAND SURFACE.
I. Ekosion. Definition. Wind : ei-osive wfirk. Atmospheric moist-
ure: souiee; forms: erosive work. Cround water: isource; uses; erosive
work, ytroams: source; deepening work ; brondcnintr work. Glaciers:
source; motion ; erosive work. Waves ' erosive work.
II, Transportation'. Wind. Water. Ice iJinction.
in. Deposition. Dunes. Rtnam depojits: nlluvinl cones; eand
bars; flood plains; deltas. Spring deposits. Chvc dcposils. Veins.
Glacial drift. Shore deposits ■ beaches ; liars ; sandy hooks ; coral reefs.
The layers of roeks r of rock>- origin ; of animal or vegetable origin.
IV. Features of Surfack Water.s. Springs : origin ; classes ; uses.
Streams: source; bed; diriiles; flood plains: fidls; meanders; bayous;
mouths. Lakes; origin; inlets; outlets; classes. Glaciera: regions;
classes.
CLIMATE.
SEASONS.
Revolution. While the eai-th is turniug on its axis it is
also moviug foi-waid in an almost eir<!ulai' path, or orbit,
arouml the sun. This movement of the eartli is called its
revolution. "What is the diflfereuce between a rotation and
a revolution of the eai-fh ! Eow long does it take the
earth to rotate once on its axis? The time required by
the earth to make one comjilete revolution around the
sun is called a i/ear.
The orbit is really clliptic&t, but differs bo slightly from a circle that
it ia most accnrati'ly represented as circular.
Inclination of Axis. As the earth travels around its
orbit, the axis always points in nearly the same direction.
they are nQver equal. During what months is the north pole in the
lighted hemisphere 1 During what months is it in the dark hemisphere T
Thus, at the poles there are six months of continuous daylight, fol-
lowed by six months of continuous darkness. When the earth passes
either equinox, the poles gradually recede from the sunrise and sunset
tine for three months, and then approach and reach it again three months
later at the other equinox.
When IS the north pole farthest within the lighted hemisphere 1 When
far he«t Bith tic dark hemisphere t At these dates the day and night
are of m st ueq al length
The axis is not perpendicular to the orbit; it leans, or
inclines, about 23f degrees from the perpendicular, as
shown in the diagi-am above.
Effects. It is because of this inclination of the axis that
the hours of sunrise and sunset change from day to day,
and that one half of the vear is warmer than the other half.
Length of Days and Nights. The diagram above sbows (he p[>sttina
of the north pote with respect to the edge of the sun-Iiglited half of the
earth each month in the year. Name the montlis in which the pole b
exactly on the line between the lighted and the dark half of the earth.
At these times the sun is exactly over the equator ; lu-nce the sunlight
extends to the same distance on both sides of the equator, or to both
poles. As the eartb rotates in this
position the mije rises and sets at
six o'clock, and too days and nights
are everywhere of equal length ;
hence these dates are called equi-
noxeg (equal nights).
The days and nights are always
of equal length on the equator, but
obewhere, except at the equinoxes,
(
Jill.
^
^
~~-\
^^
J
['/ ^-
5U N'S
~y :
/ V
.f"^-*-
'-}'
i li
/'
RA> S
\ /;
.^^
sc
About JuE
About December a
At the March •qninox.
About June 21 the north pole is 23t° within the lighted hemisphere;
the perpendicular rays of the sun fall on places 23i° north of the equator.
How far within the dark hemisphere is the south pole T As the earth,
rotates in this position, the sun rises and sets at six o'clock at the
equator, and the days and nights there are equal, but the sun riaes earlier
and earlier at places nearer and nearer to the north pole, and later and
later at places nearer and nearer to tlie south pole ; hence in the northern
hemisphere the days are longer than the nights. Are they then longer
or shorter than the nights in the southern hemisphere f Places withm
23^° of the north pole are in the sunlight, while places n-ithin 23i° ol
the south i>ole are in darkness, throughout an entire rotation of the earth.
About December 21 the north pole is within the dark, and the south
pole within the lighted half of the earth, while tiie perpendicular rays of
the sun fall on places 23i° south of the equator. From the diagram ex-
plain what effect this position has upon the length of the days andnigbta
in the northern and in the southern hemisphere.
The Seasons. Why is it usually warmer during the daytime than at
night T Do we live north or south of the equator^ Compare the lighted
part of the northern hemisphere about June 21 with its lighted part about
December 21. Does the northern hemisphere receive more sunshine in
June or in December^ In which of these months is ihe weather warmer
in the northern hemisphoi'e I Why T Tn which of these months is the
weather warmer in the southern hemisphere 1 Why T
Thus the inclination of the earth's axis causes summer
and winter. When it is winter in the southern hemisphere
what season prevails in the northern hemisphere? At the
equinoxes just one half of each hemisphere is in the warm
sunshine. At these times occur spring and autumn, when
the temperature is intermediate between those of summer
and winter.
Tests, Define the earth's orbit. What is its shape T Define i-evolu-
tion; a year; equinoxes; summer; winter; spring and autumn. What
two causes combine to produce clianges iu the length of day and niKht f
Supplementary Work. Darken the schoolroom, and, by means of
a ball and a biuip, illustrate the position of the earth at the equinoxes;
abont June 21 ; about Dt-cember 21. Read or recite " They come I The
Merry Summer Jlonths," Motherwell; "The First Snowfall," Lowell;
" The Voice of Spring," Ilenians ; " The Dtuth of the Flowers," Bryant,
ZONES AND HEAT BELTS.
The Tropics. At the March equinox the sun is directly
overhead at the equator. By about June 21 the perpen-
22
THE EABTH AS A WHOLK
Such coral islaada often take the form of rings of loiv knd wholly or
partly Burroundinf; ithallow lagoons; such a rin^r-sbaped corul inland is
called an atoU. Coral reefs which fringe tliQ n-armer coasts of the con-
tinents may eventually become part of them, as do barrier beaches.
Tests. Define and explain waves ; breakers ; tidus ; flood tide -, hi§:b
tide J ebb tide ; low tide ; a bore j o barrier beach ; a sandy liook ; a coral
reef. Why is high tide at any spot n little later every day 1
Supplemental Work. Read or recite Ingelow's ' High Tide on
the Coast of Lincolnshire," Kingsley's "' Sands of Deo," Tennyson's
" Crossing the Bar," Holmes's " Chambered Nautilus."
THE ROCKY LAYERS OF THE LAND.
Thus the atmospheric agents anil raoviug water are con-
stantly wearing away the surface of the land and trans-
porting the material to somp lake or to the sea, Tvhere
it is deposited on the bot-
tom in nearly level layere
of sand, gravel, or mud.
The gravel or sand, being heav-
ier, sinks sooner and is deposited
nearer the sliore, while the finer
particles which compose mud are
carried farther away from land.
But nearly all thcsediment brought
down to the sea is deposited
within a few hundred miles o£
the coast, and with it are mised
the bones of animab washed from
the land, or of sea anitnab that die
and sink from the water above.
Earther from hind almost the only
deposits are the shelb of sea ani-
mals. There are miUions of them,
however, many of them very tiny,
and tUeir deposit gradually makes
a thick layer of slime, or ooze, on
the deep sea floor.
Year after year layer is depusitei
layei', until the weight above, aided
sibly by heat from within the e;
changes the lower layers iiit<i «
again, in which the fomis of tlie .'^i
and bouesare preserved as yb5^(7a. T
sandy deposits near the shore become
layers of sandstone; the deposits of
mud and clay become layers of shale or soapstone ; and
the oozes become different kinds of limestone and chalk,
which aie often little more than a mass of tiny fossils.
By gradual upheaval these layei-s of liardened sediments on the sea
bottom beeomo land, and by the pressure and heat produced in the up-
heaval tlioy may be hardened, crj'stallized, and changed still further —
thus limestone may become marble i sandstone, quartzite; and shale,
slate. Sonio of the more deeply btiried layers may even be melted and
changed to granite or to lava.
In this way have been fomiod nearly all the solid rocks which we see.
At some time iu the past the material of which they are composed was
part of an old land surface ; it was worn away and became soft sediment
on the sea floor ; it slowly hardened to rock and was upheaved to become
the present land, which is now being worn away again.
Peat and Coal. Certain kinds of moss and other plants
grow thickly on the surface of fresh water near the shore
in many shallow ponds and lakes. By the intei-hicing
of their roots they may in time cover the entire surface ot
the water with a floating mat of vegetation. The thick
mat is increased by the yearly growth on top, while
from beneath it pieces of dead vegetable matter fall to
the bottom of the lake, and accumulate as a dark mudlike
mass called muck or peat. This may eventually fill the lake,
converting it into a peat swamp, or Itog. The muck, being
partly decayed vegetable matter, makes a good fertilizer,
and when thoroughly dried is also used for fuel.
Thousands of years ago great swamps, somewhat like
the pre.sent peat Ixigs, but containing a vastly more luxu-
riant vegetation, existed in many lowlands. After their for-
mation they were slightly depressed below the sea and were
covered by layei's of mud and sand. The sediment gi-adu-
ally hardened to layers of rock, and the i>eat to beds of
the black stonelike substance which we call coal.
As the buried peat slowly changed it gradually became lignite, or
brown coal, whieli i.s much better fuel than peat, while with greater age
it is changed to true liilutninrius or mfi coal, which is still better fuel. If
th^e beds are greatly folded in upheaval, the heat and pressure hasten
their change into coal, and may change them into hard or anlhracite coal
into qraphite, of which lead pencils are made.
Petroleum and Natural Gas. Vegetable or animal
matter, wliirh ages ago was deeply Imried under sediments,
has Bometiraps been gi-adually changed, not into coal, but
into rod- oil, or petroleum, and into natural gas. Both of
tliese substances also make good fuel. They are obtained
by boring wells through the overlying layei-s of rock.
Tests. How does the
ocean deposit near the
shore differ from the
deep sea deposit T Whyt
Explain the formation
of sandstone; quart z-
ite; shale; slate; lime-
stone ; marble. Of peat;
lignite; bituminous coal;
uuthraeite coal. Of pe-
troleum ; natural gas.
Supplemental Work.
Bring to school cpeci-
meusof one kind of ruck
and of one kind of min-
eral formed from anii::al
or vegetable matter. Label each specimen, ami keep the collection in
the schooh'ooui. Write a shoi*t story of the formation of one of the
specimens.
TOPICS OK LOWERING OF TEE LAND SURFACE.
I. Eko?iox. Definition. Wind ; erosive wurk. Atmospheric moist-
ure : source ; forms ; erosive w.ji-k. (in.uiid water : source ; uses ; erosive
work. Streams: sourte ; deepi'uing work ; broadening work. Glaciers:
source ; motion ; erosive work. Waves ; erosive work.
11. Transportation'. Wind. Water. Ice. Din-ction.
III. Deposition. Dunes, Stream deposits; clluvi.il cones; Eand
bars; flood plains; deltas. Spring deposits. r«vo deposits. Veins.
Glacial drift. Shore deposits ■ beaches ; bars ; sandy hooks j coral reefs.
The layei-s of rocks ; of rocky origin ; of nuiTnal or vegetable oripn.
rV. Features of Surface Waters. Springs ; origin ; classes ; uses.
Streams : souire ; bed ; diviiles : flood plains ; falls ; meanders ; bayous ;
mouths. Lakes: origin; iuletsi outlets; classes. Glaciers: regions;
classes.
Fossilifeious Umestoae.
CLIMATE.
SEASONS.
Revolution. While the earth is turning on its axis it is
also moving foi-ward in an almost circular path, or orbit,
nroiiiul the sun. This movement of the eartli is called its
revoluthn. "What is the difference between a rotation and
a revolution of the earth t How long does it take the
eartli to rotate once on its axis J The time required by
the eartli to make one complete revolution around the
sun is called a i/ear.
Tho orbit is really elliptical, but differs so aJightly from a circle that
it is most accurately represented as circular.
Inclination of Axis. As the earth travels around its
orbit, tho axis always points in nearly the same direction.
they are aever eqnal. Ihiring vbat mouths is the north pole in the
lighted hemisphere T Dnring what months is it in the dark hemisphere t
Thns, at the poles there are sis months of continuous daylight, fol-
lowed by six months of continuous darkness. When the earth passes
either equinox, the poles gradually recede from the sunrise and sunset
line for three months, and then approach and reach it ^ain three months
later at the other equinox.
When is the north polo farthest nithtn the lighted hemisphere f When
farthest within the dark hemisphere! At these dates the day and n^^t
are of most unequal length.
The axis is not perpendicular to the orbit; it leans, or
inclines, about 23$" degrees from the perpendicular, as
shown in the diagram abova
Effects. It is because of this inclination of the axis that
tho hours of sunrise and sunset change fi'om day to day,
and that one half of the year is warmer than the other half.
/ u^.j3 ^SS' y^ Cos? A
tj- r '.rS
Length of Days and Nights. The diagram above shows (he position
of the north pole with respect to the edge of the snn-hghted half of the
earth each month in the year. Name the months in which tho pole is
exactly on tho line between the lighted and the dark half of the earth.
At these times the sun is exactly over the equator ; hence tho simlight
extends to the same distance on both sides of the equator, or to both
poles. As the earth rotates in this
position the ,'*nii rises and sets at ~ — ^
six o'clock, and tne days and nights
are everywhere of equal length ;
hence these dates are called equi-
ntaxs (equal nights).
The days and nights are always
of equal length on the equator, but
elsewhere, except at the equinoxes,
About June 21 the north pole is 23i° within the lighted hemisphere;
tho perpendicular rays of the sun tall on places 231° north of the equator.
How far within the dark hemisphere is the south polet Ah the earth.
rotates in this positi
equator, and the days
and earlier at places r
later at places nearer
hemisphere tho days i
or shorter than the nighti
23i° of the north pol.
id sets at six o'clock at the
id nights there are equal, hut the sun rises earlier
irer and nearer to the north pole, and later and
id nearer to the south pole ; henco in the northern
longer than the nights. Are they then longer
hemisphere 1 Places within
ilight, while phices within 23i° of
At the Harch eqninox.
the south pole are in darkness, throughout an entire rotation of the earth.
About December 21 tho north pole is within the dark, and the south
piole within the hghled half of the earth, while the perpendicular rays of
tb« sun fall on pUccs 23i° south of the equator. From the diagram ex-
plain what effect this position has upon the length of the days and nights
in the northern and in the southern hemisphere.
The Seasons. Why is it usimlly warmer during the daytime than at
night t Do we live north or south of the equatort Compare the lighted
part of the ttortliern hemisjthere about June 21 with its lighted part about
Decembf r 21. Does the northern hemisphere receive more sunshine in
June or in Decemberl In which of these months is tho weather warmer
in the nortliem hemisphere f Why t In which of these months is the
weather warmer in the southern hemisphere 1 WhyT
Thus the inelination of the earth's axis causes summer
and ivviter. When it is winter in the southern hemisphere
what season prevails in the northern hemisphere 1 At the
equinoxes just one half of each hemisphere is in the warm
sunshine. At these times occur spring and autumn, when
the temperature is intermediate between those of summer
aud winter.
Tests. Deflne the earth's orbit. What ia its shape T Define i-evoln-
tion; a year; equinoxes; summer; winter; spring and autumn. What
two causes combine to produce changes in the length of day and niglit ?
Supplementary Work. Darken the schoolroom, and, by means of
a ball and a lamp, illustrate the position of the earth at the equinoxes;
abont Jime 21 ; about December 21. Read or recite " They come ! The
Merry Summer Jloiitlis," Motherwell ; " The First Snowfall," Lowell ;
" The Voice of Spring," Ilenians ; " The Death of the Flowers," Brjant.
ZONES AND HEAT BELTS.
The Tropics. At the March equinox the sun is directly
overhead at the equator. By about June 21 the perpen-
THE EABTH AS A WHOLE.
dionlar rays have advanced into the northei-n bemisphero.
On what parallel do they then fall! Here they turn baek
and recede southward. "When do they again fall on the
equator! Where do the perpendicular rays fall about
December 21 1 There they turn bactt and advance north-
ward, reaching the equator in March. Hence the parallels
231° north and south of the equator are called tropics, from
a word meaning " to turn" — the northern one is tlie Tropic
of Cancer; the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn.
The Polar Circles. The i>arallel 23i° from eitlier pole
incloses a region which at one time in the year is in
darkness during a complete rotation of the earth, and at
another time is in sunshine during a complete rotation.
These parallels are called polar circles — the northern one,
the Arctic Circle; the southern, tlie Antarctic Circle.
The Zones. Is it usually warmer when the sun's rays
fall from high in the sky, as they do in the middle of the
day, or when they are nearly horizontal, as at sunrise and
sunset T The sun's rays are always poi-pendicular some-
where between tlie tropics, and that part of tlie earth's
surface is quite warm throughout the year; hence the
strip between the tropics is called the torrid, or hot, zone.
Because the sun's rays do not reach the i-egions within the
polar circles during part of the year, and during the re-
mainder are nearly horizontal, these regions are nearly
s u s ■ s / '
RAYS
r-^-'e.
ABOUT
V7--
DECEMBER
V'
'%**,
^
^ \
SUN'S
RAYS
...J
ABOUT
)
JUNE
2ia
always cold and are called the frigid, or coI<l, zones. The
regions between the torrid and the frigid zones are calleil
teinperate zones.
How do tlie temperate zones compare in temperature with the torrid
zone; with the frigid zones t Still there are parts of the temperate
Bonea which at times are hotter than parts of the torrid zone, and there
are parts which at times are colder than parts of the frigid zones. Bo
the tropics and polar circles do not form tiie boundaries of the true
heat belts.
This b partly due to the fact that, as the sun advances to its June
positinii over the northern tropic, the boundaries of all the heat belts also
advance northward ; and as the sun retreats to its December portion
over the aouthem tropic, the boundaries of all the heat belts retreat
southward with it.
Other reasons for the irr^nlar boundaries of the true heat belts are
the irregular distribution of land and water over the earth, and the dif-
ferences in elevation of the land surfaoe.
Effect of Land and Water. The sea does not change
greatly in temperature during the year. The temperature
of the land, however, changes greatly in latitudes where
the days and nights are of very unequal length. The
land is slightly warmer than the sea in summer, but
much colder in winter.
The npper part of the atmosphere, resting on the part beneath, omn-
presses it and makes it denaer; thus the atmosphere is densest at the
surface of the Bca, but on high mountain tops is so rare, or thin, that it
will scarcely support life.
Illustrsting comparative density of the
The heat rays of the son pass easily throu^ the rare part of the at-
mosphere, and, as there is scarcely any air to warm, they lose but little of
their heat there. They pass through the lower, denser part with in-
creatiing difQculty, howcvpr, and give to it about half of their heat
before tliey reach the earth's surface; hence the rays themselvee warm
the lower air more than the upper air.
The heat rays which n?ach the solid land can penetrate it to a very
slight depth, and thus quickly make its surface even warmer than the
lower air. This excess of heat tries to escape back through the atmos-
phere, bat it penetrates the dense air above lowlands very slowly and
heats it still further.
At night, however, the supply of sun heat being cut off, the rare
npper air pennits the escape of heat from the dense lower air, which in
turn robs the land surface of its heat. Thus during the long nights of
winter the land quickly loses the heat that accnmnlatea at its surfaoe
during the long days of summer.
The sun's heat rays which reach the sea penetrate and warm it to
a greater depth than the land b warmed, and the warm water may
move to cooler regions in waves or .inrrents. Hence the surface of the
sea is not warmed po quickly or so greatly as the land. But neither does
it cool so quickly at night, for as the surface water cools it is replaced by
warmer water from below.
Effect of Elevation. At great elevations the air la so
rare that it is but slightly warmed eitlier by the sun's rays
or by the heat escaping from the earth. It thus happens
that the climate, or prevailing weather, of highlands is
colder than that of lowlands.
Thus in the torrid zone, although
the tops of high mountains bear s
melted away.
But it must not be supposed that
For the very' reasou that the thiu ai
sun's rays, the sunshine itself on inouiitiiins is hott<.>r than on lowlands ;
bat at night, or in the shade, the weather is cold.
■ is never seen in the lowlands,
banks that are never entirely
siniimits are always cold,
aniuit taki- much heat from the
True Heat Belts. "WTiy <lo the true heat belts differ
from the zones! The boundaries of tlie true heat belts
in January and in July are shown on the following maps.
Each boundary line is an isotherm ; that is, a line passing
through places having the same temperature. The bound-
aiy of the cold belt has about the temperature of freezing
water (30°) ; that of the hot belt has the comfortable tem-
perature of a sitting room (70°).
widi thmr Jtily porittons. ^'^Jf™ tlie differ*
eitoeB in pootion.
In the lowest pair of m^n the boundaries
of the heat belts in both Jann&T; and July
are dxarm, in order to ahow the temperature
changes of each region during the whole year.
What parts of the hind surface of the world are
always hot T What parte have a temperate
n-inter and a hot samnier t What parts of the
land surface are always temperate t What
parts have a temperate summer and a cold win-
ter f What parts have a hot sommer and a
cold winter t What part of the w<»ld is always
ooldt
Tests. Name ilie Eonee f their bonndaiies.
Define zone; tropic; nre; dense; isotherm.
How is heat distribution affected by laud and
water; by elevation t Why do the true heat
belts differ from the BonesI
Supplemental Work. Draw maps of the
hemispheres, showing the tropics, polar circles,
and true heat belts in snmmer and in winter.
Head " The Discoverer of the North Cape," by
Longfellow ; and " Tropical Vegetation in South
America," by Elngsley, in Barnes's Fifth Reader.
When a fire is burning on the hearth the air
moves toward it along the floor of the room
and rises up the ehinmey with
the smoke. In the same way
the air moves toward the bot-
tom of the chimney of a fitted
lamp and when faeat«d rises
through the chimney-
Like nearly all other
substances, the air ex-
pands and occupies more
space when it is heated. If the at-
mosphere over any region becomes
warmer than that over surroundiiig
regions, it expands upward and be-
comes deeper over the hot region.
The upper air therefore flows off side-
Where are the sun's rays perpendicular about July 11 At this
season the accumulation of heat in the great land masses of North Amer-
ica and Emasia carries the edge of the hot belt far northward. Where
does the heat equator, or line of greatest heat, lie farthest north at this
season T Where is it nearest the true equatort What heat belt sar-
ronnds the north pole at this season t The sonth pole t As July is in
the winter of the southern hemisphere, tiie hot belt in that hemisphere
shrinks in width, while the south cold belt is greatly enlarged. As the
surface of the southern homisphere b mostly water, the boundaries of
its heat belts are comparatively regular.
Compare the January positiuns of the heat equator and the heat belts
wise from above the warmer region,
while surface emrents of cooler and
heavier air flow in below and force the warmer and lighter
air upward. Such surface cm-reuts of air are called winds.
Trade Winds. Over the heat equator the air is
always warmer and more expanded than that nearer
the jioles, and hence tliroughout the year there are
nearly coneitaiit winds blowing toward the heat equator
frniii some distance on botli sides. These winds are
especially well marked on the level surface of the
THE EABTH AS A WHOLE.
open oceans. They are gentle, steady winds, and are
called trade winds.
a of the rotation of the earth, the moving air turns out of a
straight course as it advances, taming to the right in the northern hemi-
sphere, but to the left in the southern. The trade winds, therefore, ap-
proach the heat equator obhquely. What b their direction north of
the equator! South of the equator t
Belts of Calms. The northeast and southeast trade
winds, when they meet, are forced slowly upward by the
cooler and heavier air behind. The rising air expands and
cools. What becomes of its vapor t {p. 14.) The place
of meeting of the trade winds is therefore marked by a
narrow belt of light breezes or calms, in which tliere is
almost constant cloudy and rainy weather. Tliis belt is
called the equatorial calms. Find it on the map.
At the outer edge of the trade win<is, in both tlie
northern and the southern hemisphere, is a narrow belt
or region in which the air is slowly settling down from
the upper atmosphere, and becoming warmer as it de-
scends. Why are
these not rainy
belts t These belts
are consequently
max'ked by calms
and clear weath-
er. They are
called the tropical
caUns.
Prevailing West-
erly Winds. Be-
yond the tropical
calms the general
movement of the
atmosphere is to-
ward the poles —
from the southwest in the northern hemisphere, and from
the northwest in the southern hemisphere.
Winds gradnally acquire the temperature of the sarface over which
they Wow. The prevailing weateilies ooenr in latitudes where the land
is warmer than the sea in Bumroer, and cooler than the sea in
winter. These winds, therefore, tend to equalize the temperature on
the west coasts of the oontinente in the temperate zones — making the
mmmerB cooler and the winters warmer than they are on the east coasts.
N Cydones. The winds of the temper-
ate zones, however, are rendered very
irregular by being drawn into vast
whirls called ct/clones, whieh are con-
stantly forming and moving eastward
in various parts of these zones.
Becaose of the earth's rotation, cyclones on
the same dde of the equator always whirl in
the same direction, but on the other side of the
(\\ \ I equator they whirl in the opposite direction, as
"^l I I le shown in the diagram. Do the winds move from
or toward the equator on the east side of cy-
clones t On the west dde t
As the winds whirl around the center of the
cyclone, they get nearer and nearer to it, and
travel Caster and faster until they may becom* atom vinds. In the
center of the cyclone the air rises and rapidly cools, and on the east side
of the cyclone the air also cools, because it is blowii^ away from the
equator. Hence the cent«r and east side of cyclones are generally
marked by clouds and rain or snow. The western mde of the cy-
clone, in which the wind is whirling from a colder r^on toward the
equator, is marked by clearing, cool, or ixild weather. WhyT
Nearly all of our ordinary storms are simply the pasnng of sodi
cyclones. Thesi' great atmoMpheric whirls form so frequently that the
ri-gions of the westerly winds are the stormiest in the worid. The whirb
move eastward for ^roat distances, sometimes traveling as mooh at
halfway around the earth, before they finally die away.
Monsoon Winds. Owing to the shifting of the heat
equator, and of tlie belts of calms, with the change of
seasons, much of the land in the torrid zone is north of
the equatorial calms in January, and south of them in
July. As the prevailing winds blow obliquely toward
these calms, it follows that Ju many torrid lands the
witids blow froin one direction in summer and from an-
other direction in winter. This seasonal change in the
direction of the
wind is strongly
marked in south-
ern Asia and eaet-
eiTi Africa, and on
those coasts the
prevailing winds
are called morr-
soons, from a word
meaning "season.'
Where does the heat
eqnalor lie in January
in the eastern hemi-
sphere T (p. 25.) Id
winter the regular
northeast trades pre-
vail over the northern
Indian Ocean. Whyl
Where is the heat equator over ihe eastern hemisphere in Julyt Id
summer llie sontheast trade winds sweep north of the true equator, and,
being turned to the right by tlie rotation of the earth, reach the coast
of Asia as a steady southwest monsoon. This blows for several months,
until the heat equator gradually api>roachos the true equator in the early
fall. Then the northeast monsoon (or regular trade wind) prevails,
while the heat equator in in the southern hemisphere.
Tests. Define and explain winds; trade winds; equatorial oalms;
tropical calms i pi'cvailing westerlies; cyclon
Supplemental Work. By holding narrow strips of paper over a
lighted lamp, show that hcatefl nir is lighter than the colder air around
it. Read pp. 207-229 Waldo's '' Elementarv Meteorology." Read or recite
"The Hurricane," by Bryant; "'The Wiad iiu a Frolic," by Wm. Howitt.
RAINFALL.
Cause. Wliere does most of the vapor in the atmosphere oome
from I (p. 13.) Wliat causes it to change into cloud, rain, or snow !
The winds in-e the gi-eat vapor carriers, and hence the rainfall of the
world depends largely upon the winds. But the winds do not yield
cloud and rain unless tlie vapor tliey carrj- is chilled. The vapor may
be chilled (1) by rising higher in the atmosphere, or (2) by being carried
into a colder re^on. The term rainfall usually includes snowfall also.
Rainfall of the Torrid Zone. Do the trade winds blow
towaixi warmer or toward colder regions T Does this indi-
cate that the trade-wind regions are dry, or rainy t As the
trade winds advance over the oceans tliey grow warmer an<l
thirstier, and evapoi-ate so uimili water that the sea is more
salty in these regions tlian elsewhere. How is the vapor
cbillcd and condensed into rain in the equatorial calms?
Over the Atlantic and Paeiflc o<'eans, this belt never nmves
far from the equator, and so much fi*esh water pours down
as rain in that region tliat the sea tbci-e is loss salty than in
the trade-A\ind belts on either siile. In wbieb zones does
most of the land iveeivc a heavy or a moderately heavy
rainfall I In which zones is the rainfall on the laml letis
than moderate f
Over the land the oquatoiiiil min )k'1i sliifts noi'lh and ^niitli tbron^h
nearly the entire widtli of the torrid zone, and, as it passes, it Rivt'S a
season of uniptc rains tu tlio greater j>art of tbe land tiiirfaoe in the toiTid
zoiio. In the southci'ii part of the zone the rainy st^asvin oeeiirs in the
Januarylialf of theyoar; but in tLenorthcmpart.in the July Imlf. Whyl
In the central parts of the zone there are ajit to l>e two
the year— one when
tbe rain belt sweeps
northward in our
spring, and another as
it sweeps southward in
oar fall
Where the vapor-
bearing trade winds
are forced to rise over
highlands, a heavy
rainfall results. Why!
Compare the rain map
(p. 26) with tbo map
on p. 16, and ^ve rea-
sons Cor the heavy
rainfall on tlie north-
east and southeast
coasts of South Amer-
ica; in the npper Ama-
zon valley; onfhewest
coast of Africa. When does the heavy rainfall occur in east Africa t
In sonthem and southeastern Asia T Why do the East Indies have a
heavy rainfall t Do the heat equator and equatorial rain belt ever reach
tbe coast of South America near the southern tropic t (map, p. 25.) Are
windu from the sea forced up the west slope of tbe highlands in that
■region T Why does that coast receive little rain !
Rainfall of the Temperate Zones. Do the prevailing
winds of the temperate zones advance into wanner or into
colder latitudes f These winds cool quite slowly. They
start from tbo tropical calms as dry winds, and do not
yield much ruin iiutil they are cliilled cither in cyclones or
by rising over highlands. Thus liigblands and cyclones
are tbe rain producers of tlie temperate zones.
Compare the maps on pp. 26 and 16. Why do the northwest coast
of North America and the southwest coast of South America receive
abundant rainfall 1 Why is there little rainfall in the region east of
these coasts T The eastern half of North America gets its rainfall by
the cyclone winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic. Western
Enrope gets its moderate rainfall chiefly from cyclones. Farther east
the rainfall is light because tbe re^on is so far from the sea that the
winds contain little vapor.
What is tbe general movement of the air in the tropical calm beltsl
What kind of weather prevails there t Can you tell why there is tittle
rain in r^ons near the tropics in north s
Asia, Australia, and western North America
mth Africa, southwest
Tests. Explain the existence of rainy or dry weather accompanying
equatorial calms ; trade winds ; tropical calms; monsoons; the parts of
a cyclone. Give effects of surface on rain distribution, with examples.
Supplemental Work. Read or recite " Bain in Summer," and " The
Etaiuy Day," by Longfellow.
OCEAN CURRENTS.
In nearly every part of tbe sea there are slow movements,
or ciineuf", ot the surface water. Tbe currents move in
tbo general directions of the prevailing winds, and are
I generally l>elieved to be caused cbietly by them.
' The trade winds drive the equatorial waters of all the
oeeans westward, while the prevailing westerly winds urge
; the sea water eastward in temperate latitudes; and thus on
, each side of the equator, in both the Atlantii^ and the Pa-
I cilie Ocean, the water is thrown into a gieat whirl or
i eddy arfiuud the region of tropical calms. In what di-
rection do these
whirls move on the
side toward the
equator! In what
partof these oceans
do they move
away from tlie
equator I In what
part of the oceans
do they move to-
ward the equator !
A branch from
the north Atlantic
eddy follows the
coast of Europe in-
to the Arctic Ocean
and sweeps aromid
its basin, returning southward near the coast of Greenland.
South of the equator in tbe Indian Ocean, there is a
great eddy similar to those in the south Atlantic and
Pacific oceans, but north of the equator the currents of
the Indian Ocean move generally eastward during half of
the year, and generally westward during tbe other half.
During which half do yon think they move eastward!
Wherever the ocean eddies move from the equator their water is
warmer than that of the surronniliiig <icean, autl that ]>art of the whirl
is called a virm current; but that part of the whirl which moves toward
the equator is a cold current, becausu it is cooler than the surrounding
Currents affect the climate of the neighboring coasts chiefly by wanning
or cooling the winds which blow from them to the coasts. Which coasts
of the continents are most affeeted by the ocean currents in the temperate
zones 1 Wliich in the torrid zone t
Names of Currents. Various j>arts of these great surface eddies of the
oceans have been given siMicial names. What is tbe part of all the great
eddies called which moves west near the equator T What is the part
of the north Atkintie eddy nortli of the West Indies called? This is
because part of it appears to flow out of tbe Gulf of Mi-iico between
Florida and Cuba. The narrowness of this channel makes tlie Gulf
Stream here one of the most rapid nf the ocean currents. Is it a
warm or a cold current 1 What is the corresponding part of the north
THE EAKTH AS A WHOLE.
Pacific eddy flowing p&st the
Japanese Islands called 1 Its
Japanese name is EuroshiKO,
or "Black Stream." Is it a
warm or a cold current t
What is the eastern part of
the whirl in tbe nortli Pacific
called T The eastern part of
the south Pacific whirl I Are
these warm or cool currents 1
Testfi. Name, describe,
and explain the chief ourreuts
of the Atlantic Ocean ; the Pa-
cific; the Indian; the Antarc-
tic. Explain the effect of
ocean ciirrents upon climate.
Supplemental Work. Us-
ing the maps on pp. 26 and
27, write a comparison of the
eliroatea of the eastern and
western shores of the northern Pacifii
Ocean."
Read B.vtdu's "Address to tbe
TOPICS ON DISIBIBOTIOir OF HEAT AND MOISTDKB.
I. Heat. Day and night : cause ; differences in leng^li. Seasons :
causes; names; times. Zones: boundaries; names; modifications — by
altitude, by land and water, by earth's position, by winds, by currents.
II. Rain. Cause. Influence of winds: trade winds; prevailing west-
erlies; calms — equatorial, tropical; cyclones; monsoons, lufiuence of
Effect of surface: mountains; land and water; plains.
LIFE.
DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE.
Plants and animals are found in nearly all parts of
tbe world, but they are most abundant in warm, moist
regions. Thus there is an irregriilar but gradual de-
crease in life forms from the
moist equatorial lowlands
toward the cold polar re-
gions, and also toward the
cold summits of high moun-
tain raugcs.
Dense Forests. In what
zone are most of the dense
forests! How gi-eat is the
rainfall of these forest re-
gions t Tliis forest vegeta-
tion is wonderfully dense
and luxuriant. The great
trees stand close together,
and are often covered and
interlaced with hundreils of
climbing vines and air i>lants.
As there is no cold season,
vegetation grows through-
out the year and is always
green. The leaves of the
plants arc very large, like
those of the palms. Dense aqoatorial forat.
Open Forests. In what zone are most of the open for-
ests! IIow great is the rainfall of these forest regions?
The forest vegetation of tlie temperate zones is much less
dense and luxuriant than that of the tonid zone.
Only such plants live in the temperate zones as can
ripen their fruit during the warm season. They either
stop growing or die during the cold season.
Most of the broad-leafed trees, such as the oaks and maples, lose their
leaves in uutnmn, while nearly all tlio ovei^reen trees have needle-like
Ivaves, as the pines, or scale-Uke foliage, as the cedars.
The animals (jf these zones arc adapted for the changing seasons by
having heavier coats of liair, fur, or feathers in winter, and some of them
lie dormant or aistcep in sheltered places throughout the cold season.
Grassy Lands. Are there any grassy lands in the tor-
rid and temijerato zmiesf Are they mostly in regions of
heavy or of light rainf;dl f In botli zones, where the rain-
fall is too light or too unevenly distrilmted through the
year for forests, it may yet be sufficient for a
gi'owtli of gi-ass, shiTilis, and other low plants.
In sucli plat-es are foimd open grassy lands.
These are called prairies, sUppea, llanos, and pampat, in
diffen^'nt parts of the world. They are often virj- fertile,
and when the rainfall is suQicient, make excellent farms.
The Buimul life of these regions b different from that of
the forest'i — for animals nilapted to hvo on or amcng
(fees cannot secure foi>d in open lands.
Tundras. In the frigid zones, it is so
cold that comparatively few kinds of plants
and animals can live. Throughout this re-
tirion the soil is frozt'u to a great depth. Only
its Kin-faco thaws in sninnier, and, as the water
cannot pink through the frozen soil beneath,
a wide stri[> of country along the Arctic coast
of America and Eurasia is thus converted
at that season into a great swamp, or tundra.
The life forms are sp(?»'i:dly adapted to live through
the long winters. Most of the auimals have coats of
thick fur or t'overinijs of fat to keep them warm. Though
sonic kinds of flowering plants manage to blossom and
fruit during the short summer, the vegetation consists
mostly of mosses and hchens and a few dwarfed trees
Tlw giant cactua, Aruona.
Deserts. What besides warmth is necessary for jilaiit
lifet A very dry region, even if it is warm, eau have
little or no vegetation. Such a region is a desert.
On tlie T^nfall map (p. 26) find the warm regions baving little raiafall.
Compare these with the dnaerts on the vegetation map. Are there deserts
in all the grand diviwonst Where are Uie most extensive deserts 1
The few plants of deserts are peculiarly adapted for a dry climate,
having hard, close bark and small leaves through which their juices can-
not evaporate easily. Many, like the cactus, are armed with thorns or
Bpikes. These prevent plant-eating animals from touching the plants
and breaking the bark which preserves the sap from evaporatiou. The
animals, therefore, moat be specially adapted to procure food in these
dry re^ons.
Supplemental Work. Bring to school leaves of several varieties of
ovei^Teen and of broad-leaved trees growing In your own neighborhood.
Mount them on cardboard and label them. Find out about the palm or
the banana; its distribution, appearance, and use. Find out about the
cactus, the maguey, the acacia, and their usea,
GREAT LIFE REGIONS.
Barriers. As there are differences in heat and mois-
ture, so are there differences in the life forms of different
regions, each form being specially fitted, or adapted,
to the climate and other conditions of its own region.
Animals are free to roam, birds to fly, and the seeds of
plants are scattered far and wide by winds, currents, and
animals; yet, sooner or later, both animals and seeds are
likely to reach a re^on in which they are unfitted to live,
and which thus acts as a natural barrier to their further
diffusion.
The greatest natural barrier for land life is the sea, though a wide des-
ert, or a high monntMn chain, is qujt« as impassable to many animals
and plants. But a barrier may consist simply of a difCerenoe in climate,
the absence of proper food, or the presence of enemies which tho Bnim^l
or plant cannot withstand.
Great IJfe Regions. The deserts and the mountain
ranges that lie between the toiVid and north temperate
heat belts, together with the sea, are such important bar-
riers to the spread of animal and plant life that they may
be taken to mark the division of the continental plateau
into six great life regions. In each of these tho plants
and animals differ to a greater or less extent from those
of all the other I'egions.
Name the dx great life r^oos. What forms the barrier between the
Bouth American and the North American life region I Between the
African and the Eurasian region f In theee tranaitional re^ons life
forms are found somewhat resembling some of those in the nughboring
regions, but strangely changed and adapted to fit them to then- dry sur-
roundings. The barrier between the Eurasian and the Oriental rc^on
is the edge of the Eurasian highland. In the west it is sharply marked,
for there the edge of the highland rises into the Himalaya Mountuns,
the loftiest range in the world. Farther east there is a broad transit
tionalregion, where the barrier is chieUy the difteronce in climate between
the temperate and torrid beat belts. What is the barrier betwe^i
the Oriental and Australian life regions T
Supplemental Work. Bead "How Plants Travel" in Johonnofs
"Glimpses of the Animate World," "Migration of Birds" in Look-
wood's "Animal Memoirs," Part 11.; Dana's " Plants and their Children."
THE AUSTRALIAN REGION.
The Australian is the most peculiar of the life regions.
Nearly all of the native four-footed animals either are
hatched from eggs or are so helpless at birth that for
some time they are can-ied in a pouch or fold of skin on
the breast of the mother.
There are many kinds of such pouched animals. Many of them are
oC the kangaroo type ; others, the koala and the Taemanian devil, are
bearlike animals about the size of a poodle dog ; another, tho Tasmanian
wolf, is as big as a Newfoundland dog. Still others are somewhat like
squirrels, rabbits, rats, mice, or moles in size and habits. The kangaroos
are leapers, liaving short, weak fore legs and long, stout hind legs, upon
which they squat upright and with which they leap over the ground.
The largest kangaroo, when sitting upright, is as tall as a man, but somo
kinds are as small as rats.
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
Tipxt ilnv a ri'i)roiliictiiin nf nii an(«<]otc or (icseriplion brought by on*
Tbe Cyclopudia and liooks on natanJ bistnrj- contain ihese desorip-
(iorii^, but yon may find anecdot«s &nd poems in tlie readers used ii
THE SOUTH AMERICAN, AFRICAN, AND ORIENTAX
REGIONS.
The South American Region contains more kmds
of jilants and animais than any other region, and, nest
to tbe Australian, is the most peculiar. It is the home of
many kinds of opossums. Some earrj' theii- young in a
p'.iich, but in other kinds the pouch is not well de-
\'i.'1()1kh1, and the young ride on the mother's back as
slio climbs among the trees.
The sloth is a foreal-loving animal that spends most of its life
iiiiiiL'iufr by its loiitr cui-vwl claws from thebronclicsof Irees. Tiny air
..hmi-c !.']-"wl!ijj t'rmn its fur give tiie animal a gn'euisb color. The
Some animals of the Australian region.
The egg-laying mammals are the echidna, a kind of itnt-uutvr li:iv-
ing a beaklike snout and a Ijody covered with thick spines; and the
duckbill, which has a bill like a duck's, fur like a mole's, and web)ie<l
feet. The duckbill lives mostly in the water, making its bnirow in llie
banks as a mnskrat does. Tbe echidna and tbe duckbill are each
about as large as a terrier dog.
Among the birds are the large ostriehlike running birds — the emu,
the cassowary and the kiwi; the brush turkeys, wliicli do not sit on
their eggs, but after heaping up great mounds of brush nvcr them
leave them to hatch themselves ; the Ijre bird, so named from tlie
form of its tail; and the bower birds, which build a uovered play-
ground or bower which they decorate with shells or colored stones.
Among the more pecuhar plants are the leafless she oak or beef-
wood trees; flowering but leafless acacia trees, which produce a burk
excellent for tanning ; and many kinds of eucalyptus trees. Some of
these are among the tallest trees in the world; others are peculiar in
having several forms of leaf on the same tree ; and on many the
leaves grow with their edges inal«ad of their sides toward the sun.
The tropical forests along the nortli coast conttun many palms and
other plants similar to those of southern Asia.
Eecently man has Introduced into Australia sheep,
cattle, rabbits, and other kinds of animals. These thrive
wonderfully, showing that other than pouched animals
might have lived iu this region had not some barrier pre-
vented them from reaching it.
What Australian Life indicates. Egg-laying mam-
mals are now found nowhere else in the world, and the opos-
sums of America are the only pouched animals now found
outside of the Australian region. Fossils, however, of such
animals are found buried in the rocks of Euiasia, and
it is supposed that ages ago they were the ouly kind
of mammals iu the world. At that time Australia is
thought to have had a laud connection with Eurasia and
to have been stocked with these animals. Afterward it
became separated from Eurasia by an impassable barrier
of sea, thus preserving its ancient animal forms, while
in the larger land masses these early animals were re-
placed by more highly organized descendants.
Supplemental Work. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, or a de-
■eription of one plant or animal peooliar to ths Australian region. Write
Some animals of the South AroeiicOD region.
ant-eater has no teeth, but has a long, sticky tongue to which the
ants adhere. The armadillos are burrowing animals often met with in
tlie open plains. They are covered with a flexible homy armor, in which
they roll themselves into a ball when frightene<). This region is the home
of the guinea pig, the tapir, the long-tailed monkey, the piglike peccary,
and the jaguar, or American tiger. Several kinds of Hamas live in the
Andes and in the Bouthoni lowlands. These animals are related to the
camel, and like it can live many days without water; they are tmined
as beasts of burden, and yield a wool or liair that is woven into cloth.
Among the birds are beautiftU parrots and macaws, the condor of the
Andes, — the largest of flying birds, — tbe ostrichlike rhea, and the
cuniBsow, which is related to the Australian brush turkey.
Among the peculiar plants of this region are the mahogany, rosewood,
logwood, ;iud einebona or Peruvian-bark trees; jdanls yielding India rob-
ber, the vanilla bean, and useful gums; palms, bananas, bamboos, and
tree ferns. Cayenne pepper, the potato, the tomato, tobacco, and Indian
com are native in this region, but the coffee tree, sugar canb and wheat
were brought to South America by man.
The African Region ranks next to the Australian and
South American in jieculiar plants and animals. It is
specially noted for the great number of its flesh-eating
animals — lions, leopards, panthei's, hyenas, and jackals —
31
and for its hoofed animals, such as many antelopes, the
Ciipe biiSalo, the hippopotamus, the giraffe, tlie zebra, and
the wild ass, from which the donkey is descended.
Besides these there are the elt^hant, the rhiuoceros, and many mon-
keys, including the Iiuge (gorilla and the smaller chiinpaiizeu, which are
more like man than are any other animals.
Among the birds arc the ostricli, the larpo secretary vidturi', which is
both a powerful runner and a flyer, guinea fowl, and thi: beautiful blue
and copper- colored plantain eaters.
The plants include mauy palms, amontr them the oil palm and the date
palm ; and many acacias, most of them thorny shrubs growing in desert
lands and yielding valuable gums, as gam arable. The baoltab is a
peculiar tree of Africa; its spreading branches droop so that a single
tree may resemble u whole grove. The coffee tree is a native of north-
eastern Africa.
The Oriental Region is noted oven more tiian tlio Afri-
can for flesh-eating animals; besides the lion, Icopanl, and
hyena, it has the tiger, tlie largest, strongest, and fiercest
of the cat family. Like south Afiica, too, this region has
the elephant and the rhinoceros, and herds of wild buffalo,
some of which are domesticated as boast-s of burden. An-
aud Eurasia. Their fossil remains are now found in the
rocks of those grand divisions, above the fossils of the
pouclied animals. Then, by changes of climate or the slow
movements of tlie earth's crust, the harriers came into ex-
istence and shut off the life of South America, and Africa,
and southeast Asia f I'oin the lai^e land mass to the north,
where these animals gradually perished and were replaced
by more liighly organized descendants.
Supplemental Work. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, or &
dcscri[>tion of one animal and one plant belonging to eacli of these re-
gions. Write next day a reproduction of the anecdote or the description
givou by some other pupil.
THE EURASIAN AND NORTH AMERICAN REGIONS.
The Etnasian and North American regions differ from
each other loss than any other two regions. It is re-
markablo that tlie plants and animals of Iwo such large
regions, separated by the cold Arctic chmate and a sea
barrier, should be so similar. Yet the native life forms of
the two regions are seldom exactly alike, and in some
instances are quite different.
In bolh regions arc found boiirs, wild eats, wolves, foxes, deer, bea-
vers, and squiiTcb, The white polar I>ear and the black bear are the
same in the two regions, while the fierce Rocky Mountain grizzly bear
is much the same as the European brown bear. The reindeer that is
trained to draw sledges over the Arctic snows of Eurasia is practically
the same as the wild caribou which is Imnted for food in the region near
Hudson Bay, The European elk is tlie same as the American moose.
The Rocky Moimtain goat and the bighorn sheep are cousins of nine-
teen or twenty kinds of wild goatd and sheep, including ihe ibex and
rhamoia, of Eurasia ; even the American bison (buffalo) and musk
ox are close kin to wild cattle found in Eurasia.
Yet tie pimia, skunk, raccoon, prong-horned antelope, rauskrat,
prairie dog, otter, and opossum are found only in America, while
wild boars, camels, and wild horses are found only in Eurasia, for
the iiueestors of the horses in America were introduced by man.
Eagles, owls, hawks, crows, and wrens are found in botb ri'giona,
Imt wild turkeys, Ijuz^ards, blue jays, orioles, mocking birds, and hum-
ming birds are American, while vultures, pheasants, (rue partridges,
stai'lmgs, magpies, and nightingales are peculiar to Eurat^ia.
Some animals of the African and Oriental regions.
other domestic animal, the zebu, is uiuch like our cattle,
but has a hump over its shoulders.
There are bears m this region, and several kinds of deer, wild cattle
and wild swine, and tapirs, tiiuch like those found in South America.
This is the home of true mice and squirrels, and of several kinds of
monkeys, including the manlike orang-outang.
Among the birds are the beautiful little bnlbid, which the natives
train to light, and many kinds of pheasants, including the peacock
and the jungia fowl, from whieh our chickens are descended.
The plants include cedars, yews, pines, and oaks along the slopes
of the Himalayas, but in the hot lowland forests are many spice-
yielding plants, bamboos, palm.", and fine hard woods and cabiuet
■woods, an teak, ebony, satinwood, and sandalwood.
What South American, African, and Oriental Life
indicates. F<ir asjcs after .\ustntlia had become |"Ti!ia-
uently separated from Eurasia, the present barricfs to
the north of Soutli Aniei-ica, Africa, and southeast Asi;i
did not exist, and most of the kinds (if animtds m.w
found only in those regions lived also iu North America
Sottu imtinnif of the £Dia«Un and North American legioos.
32
TaJS E^UTU A8 A WHOLE.
These regions are both noted for the great nnmber of cone-beariiiE
trees, as tbe pines, spruces, firs, hemlocka, and cedars; and for such'
trees as the oak, chestnut, beech, ash, elm, sycamore, walnut, maple,
birch, and willow ; as well as for the gentian, rush, and primroB(>.
America is peculiar in its golden rod and asters, the bald oyprpss
trees, and the ^reat sequoias and redwoods of the Pacific slope. Euntsia
has a greater number of heathers, roses, and tiie olive and almond trees.
What North American and Eurasian Life indicates.
The similarity in life foi-ras indicates tbnt the prosGHt bar-
riers between the North American and Eurasian regions
have existed for a comparatively short time, and that they
are not now so effectual as the barriers between these and
the other regions.
Tiiti pi-i.'seiit life furm-; of North America and Eurasia are highly or-
gHulziHl, liiit, iia iliii riM-k- tliere are found fossils of fomi= which are less
An extmct tapirlike animal of North America
highly oi^anisted and are more like those now living
in the other regions. This indicates that the life forms
now found in North America and Eurasia are the
youngest, or most recent, in the world. They are the
descendants of the older fossil forms which used to
live there. The conditions of life changed rapidly
in these n?ffion<", nnd the life forms changed with
themiindl I'.i ■ ■,■■ il ;■ 1'- iv^uraedtheirpresentform,
ivliicli i\'" ■'■:: that of their aneeslors.
In other regions the conditions changed more slowly,
and the prestnt life forms in thoae regiona (especially
in Australia) are more like their remote ancestors.
Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants are descend-
ants of wild ones, but, under the care of man, many of
them have changed so greatly that it is now hard to tell
from which of the wild animals and plants they descended.
As Eurasia seems always to liavo been the home of by
far the greater part of mankind, it is not surprising that
most of our domestic animals and cultivated plants are de-
scended from wild animals and plants of that grand division.
Supplemental Work. Bring to school a picture, an anecdote, a speci-
men, or a description of some plant or animal of tbe Noiih American
re^^on, and of some plant or animal of the Eurasian region. Write next
day a reproduction of some other pupil's anecdote or description.
ISLAND AND OCEAN LIFE.
Continental Islands are usually close to the mainland,
aad many of them have not long been separated from it ;
hence their plants and animals are generally qoite amllat
to those of the neighboring continent.
The Oceanic Islands also tiave received their life forms
from the eoutiueats, but they contain chiefly birds which
can fly long distances, and such forms of life as have seeda
or eggs which can be easily transported. Some of these
are so light tliat they will float or can be carried by the
winds. Some aro cai-ried in tbe stomachs of birds, or
attached to the mud on their feet.
Most of these foniis of island life have some resemblance to kinds
found in the continent from which tbe prevailing winds or oarrratB
move toward the islands.
Ocean Life. Many warm-blooded animals, such as
whales, porpoises, seals, and walruses, live during a part
or all of the time id the sea, but have to come to the sur-
face to breathe. In addition to these there are hosts of
true fishes that can live and breathe under water, as
sharks and mackerel and codfish, besides hundreds of kinds
of shellfish, as oysters and lobsters. The sea also con-
tains thousands of lower forms of animal life, such as
jellyfishes, sponges, and coral polyps; and many kinds
of seaweed and other marine vegetation,
Liglit penetrates the ocean to a comparatively slight depth, uid all
tlj" witir there, except a thin surface layer, is almost as «oId m ioej
hence vegetable life in the ocean is most plenti-
ful near the surface, and especially ui the shal-
low waters near the continents. As food ia thca
abundant, animal life also is most plentifnl in
these regions, though a few kinds of marine
aniuiab live near the bottom of the deepest parts
of the sea.
Supplemental Work. Read "Animal Life in
Madagascar" in Johonnot's "Flyers, Creepers,
and Swimmers," and Parts III. and IV. of
Johonnot's " Glimpses of the Animate World."
TOPICS ON DISTBIBCTIOR OF LIFS.
I. NuuBEB OP LiPE Forms. Effect of cU-
mate on ; resulting distribution.
II. Kinds of Life. Forests: equatorial —
trees, animal inliabitants ; temperate — trees,
animal inhabitants. Open lands ; grassy lands —
cause, distribution, hfe ; tundras — cause, distri-
bution; deserts —cause, disiribution,formsot life.
III. Means op Distribdtion. Without man's aid. With man's aid.
IV. Baraiebs. What they are. What they cause.
V, Life Reoions. Continental plateau: centrnl regions— common
forms, peculiar fomis, present barriers ; outlWoK repions — number, or-
der in peculiarity of forms, cbief forms of each; islands, Oceuiio
region ; island forms; murine forms.
MAN.
RACES OF HEN.
Distribution of Manltind. lu some respects man is
like otlier animals. Like them, he must have air to
breathe, a certain amount of heat, water to drink, and
food to eat. But he is vastly superior to them all in tit'
ielligence.
His intelHgenap has
tiiught him how to start a
fire, so as to warm himself
wheu he is cold ; to make
tools with which to fashion
clothing and a shelter to
protect himself from the
weather ; and to make
weapons with which to
secure food. Hia intelli-
gence also gives him the
foresight to lay up food in
summer for use duringthe
winter, or to cany food
with him when he travels
to regions that do not
supply it. Hence the
natural barriers to other
forms of life are not
great bamers to man. Men live in nenrly
all the lands of the earth, from the torrid
to the frigid zones.
It is believed that many ages ago men gradually
wandered away ia various directions fi'oui a
tral region, and made homes for them^elvt
landa and thus peopled the earth. The people who
wandered to different parts of the earth found v
different surroundings, to which their descendant)^
pradnully adapted themselves, just as the descend-
ants of plants und animalB gr&dunlly change and
adapt themselves to (.'hanging conditions of life. Thus
would arLae diiTerent racen and tifpci of nien, iu eaeli of
ivliich the people resemble one another in manners and c
a general way, in appearauce, while they differ i;
porticiilars from tho people of other raeea and types
Races. Mankind may be divided into three principal
races, iu each of which the people resemble one another
somewhat in color of the skin and iu the kind of hair.
These three races may be called the white race, the yellow
race, and the bhck race.
White Race. The home of the white or "Caucasian"
race is Europe, southwestern Asia, and northern Africa,
The people have wa\'y hair, which may be light or dark
N. 33
in color. Most of the people have pinkish-white skin,
though some are quite dark. This race includes nearly
half the people in the world, and is the most civilized
of all the races.
The principal division of this race is the Mediterranean
type, to which we belong. The home of this tyjie is the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, western Europe, and
southern Asia as far east as the mouth of the Gauges.
The two principal peoples of this type are the Aryans, embracing the
Hindus and the Persians of southern Asia, and most Europeans, together
with their descendauls in all parts of the world ;^ and the Sfniific people,
embracing the Jews, Araba, and Berbers soutli and southeast of the Med-
iterranean Sea, together with their descendants.
The Aryan people are rapidly increasing in
numbers. In recent times thousands of them
have left Europe to found homes for themselves
in each of the other grand divisions, and these
new settlers have practically taken possesaiou
of North and South America and of Australia,
and are rapidly taking possession of Africa.
Yellow Race. The home of the
yellow race is northern and eastern Eu-
rasia, America, and most of the islands
of the Pacific. The hair is straight,
coarse, and black, and the skin yel-
lowish or yelJo wish-red. Tlie jioople
lit' the yellow race are about as nu-
merous as those of the white race, but
iliey are not so highly civihzed.
The principal, and by far the
most nnmerous, type of this race
is ihe Mongolian, the people of
which, in addition to the yellow
nkia, are distiuguiahed by nar-
row, almond-shaped eyes. This
typo occupies nearly the whole
of northern, central, and easlem
The Malays form a second
type of this race. They are
often called the broom race be-
cause they have brownish-yel-
are tierce and
much less eivilizq|l than the
Mongolians. They live in ex-
southeastern Asia, in the
East Indies, and in the island.'s
of the Pacific Ocean,
The third type of this race
consists of the Awerican Ittdians,
including the EskimoE, They
34
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
ore sometimes said to form the red rnee becaiixp
of their reddish-yellow or eiipper-eoloroii akin.
They are not so iiuinerous as tho Malays, bnt
they occupied nearly the whole of the American
continent before it was settled by whites. Many ,
of tliem were savages, thouph some tribes in the
western hig^hlands of both North and South
America wore much ni<)re advanced.
Black Race. The liome of the black
race is central and southern Africa and
some of the Australian islands. Tlie
jieojile of this race liave coarse woolly
or kinky hair, protruding lips, and dark
brown or bhick skin. The black race
includes about one tenth of tlie people
in the world, and is the least civilizetl
of all the races.
The wi7roes, whose home b central Africa, form
the principal lype of this race, while the small
Papuan type includes the savageM of New Guinea
and some other Aiistralian islands. The natives nf Australij
black akin but straiglit hair, and by some luc called a separat.
DENSITY OF POPULATIOM.
Although people are found in nearly all parts of the
world, very many more live in some parts than in others.
A region very thickly peopled is said to have ynat drti-
sity of population.
In other regions one might travel for hundreils or even
thousands of miles, seldom, if ever, .seeing a human being
or any sign that people lived there. Such a region is .said
to be thinly people<l, or to have a sparse population.
On this map the most thickly peopled regions are shown by the dark-
est lining ; the regiona of moderate density of population, by the lipliter
lining; and the most thinly peopled regions, by dots.
In which gran<l division are the lai^st regions of very deiisi! popula-
tion? In what part of the grand division is each! What tj-po lives in
eachT These regions do not form a largo part of the continental pla-
tean, yet they are bo densely popnlatp<l that they contain about two
thirds of the people in the world !
In which two grand divisions are the largest regions of miKiemtely
donso population T To what tyiies do the people of these rt^gions in
Eurasia belong T To what type
do the people in centml Africa
belong! Where is the largest
region of moderately dense pop-
ulation in the western hemi-
sphere ! This is theeasternhalf
of our own countrj-. Nearly alt
the regions of dense and moder-
ately dense population in North
and South America, Australia,
and southern Africa are occupied
chiefly by Aryan people whose
ancestors went there from Eu-
rope to live within the last
hundred years.
What part of North America
is very thinly peopled t What
part of South America ; of Eu-
i-asia; of Africa; of AustndiaT
These regions tc^rether include
more than half of all the couti-
nentfl, but the population is so sparse that they
do not contain so many [leople as live iu the two
little island groups, the one east, and the other west
of Kiirasia. Compare this population map with
the rainfall map (p. 20), and tell why some of
these thinly peopled regiona are not fitted for a
dense population.
MAN'S Ctn,TURE.
The Progress of Man. Man is con-
stantly learning how to make things
and to do things which enable him
111 live more comfortably.
We have many conveniences nowadays, such as
the electric light, railroads, M'wing machinos, and
hnndreils of other common things, which wereen-
tirely unknown when our grandparents were
i^liildren. Name several others. A few hundred
years ago the art of printing was unknown ; tbe
only books which then existed were written by
hand, and comparatively ft;w people knew how to read. Some of theseold
books were liislories, from which we learn how people lived at that time.
A few thousand years ago no one in the wotUl hail yet learned how to
write, and we know very little of how {leople then lived, since they left
no written record of anything. Still it is certain that people lived long
befoie that, Ixr-Huse in rock deposits that are many thousands of ye«n
ul<l, we find things that must have been made by men, such as stone
arrowheads, stime ases, bits of pottery, and pieces of reindeer horn with
rudo pictures si-ratcbcd on them.
Savagery. Wt^ tlierefnre eon<'ludo that at one time,
many thou-sinds of years ago, nil, or nearly all, people were
more ignorant than the most savage trilies now living.
They probiilily did not know how to make anything, but lived in oavee,
wore no clothing, and at<^ only fruits, nuts, roots, and such insects w
they conhl catch, and such small animals as they could kill with clnbs
and stones. At last some one may liave learned how to tie a sharp stone
on the ejid of a stick, and thus make a spear with which to spear flsh or
kill animals. Then some one may have learned that sticks rubbed
together wUI get hot and at last hum, thus starting a fire. The most
ignorant tribes in Australia to-day do not know Low to do much more
than this. (irRihially some of the early men invented bons and arrows,
discovered how lo chip stones rudely into shape for arrowheads and axes,
ami learned how to make a canoe by hollowing out a log with fire and
stone scriipers.
ATlOJi
Bach of these disoovenes enabled people to Hve mote oomfortably
than before. People who h&vo not learned how to do mucb more ttiaa
this are aai>age».
Some tribes io Africa, and some of tlie most ignorant tribes of the
American Indians, are searoely more advuioed than this to-day.
Barbarism. The next Important step in the progress
of man seems to have been the leai-ning bow to make rude
pottery, by roughly shaping bowls and other vessels of soft
clay, and baking them hard by fire. In Eurasia, where there
were wild horses and man}' kinds of wild cattle, sheep, and
goats, men gradually learned how to tame and domesticate
these animals, and to cultivate several kinds of grain;
while in America men learned how to plant and raise corn,
which is perhaps the easiest of all grains to cultivate.
With their increanng knowlec^ the more advanced races gradually
learned how to improve their tools and weapons. They smootlied and
Abaiit MO ynn Ixfar* ChrUt.
Nearly all the Indians who lived in the oaxtem part of North America
when it was fint viint«d by white men knew how to make pottery and
to cultivate corn, while some of the Indians living in the western high-
lands had advanced nearly through the highest stage of barbarism.
Civilization. When men at last learned to write, and
wei-e thus able to leave records of what they did and
thought, they had advanced to a stage that may be called
the beginning of dvUizatum.
The greater part of the Mongolian type have reached the beginning of
civilization, but have not progressed far beyond it. The greater part
of the Mediterranean type, and especially its great Aryan branch, have
continued to improve, and are still making inventions and discoveries}
and these people form the enUghtened nations of to-day. The knowl-
edge of the arts of navigation, of printing, of architecture, the discov-
eries of nature's laws, and the application of steam and electricity to
the needs of man, mark the highest stage to which he has advanced.
Mention any other discoveries which belong to the age of civilization.
Ahant tht jw 1000.
Tlie p r o g te— of geogiapliical discovery ; the darkest tint Indicates miknown regions.
polished their rough stone arrowheads and ^learbeads and axes, made
fishhooks of bone, and rongh needles with which they ooold sew to-
gether the skins of animals for clothing. Then some one found copper
in tlie earth and discovered that it was soft enough to be hammered
into the proper shape for ornaments, while some one else found tin and
discovered that both tin and copper would melt, and when melted to-
gether would cool into a vory hard metal (bronze). Out of this metal
the people molded tools that were a great improvement on their old stone
and bone implements. With these tools they learned to quarry and
roughly to shape stone to make houses, while some one else learned how
to make bricks from clay. They also twisted the stringy fibeia of plants
into rude threads and wove them into a coarse oloth. Finally, those in-
terested in working metals found out how to get iron from the minerals,
or arts, in which it is found in the earth, and soon learned some of the
many uses of this metal.
Though no one in the world had yet learned how to write, and henoe
every one was ignorant in oomparison with the people we know, still the
people who knew how to do some or all of these things ooold live much
more comfortably Ihan the savage tribes.
People who have advanced far enough to make pottery^ to have do-
mestic animals or some cultivated plants, and to know something of the
use of the metals, but who have not yet learned to write, are said to be
in the condition of harbarism. Very many of the negro tribes of Africa
and t&e Mongolian tribes of northern Asia are barbarians to-day.
The maps above indicate the gradual growth of man's knowledge of
the world after he became civilised enough to leave a record of what he
knew upon the subject. From the first map tell in what part of the
world man first became civilized enough to leave such a record. What
parts of the world next became known to civilized man T What great
geographical discovery was made about 400 years ago T Why are the
later maps surrounded by circles, while the earlier ones are not T What
part of the world is still unknown T
Supplementary Work. Bring to school, or describe, any implements
or utensils used in your ancestors' time, and tell what improvements have
been made since then. Bring to the school collection any stone spear-
heads, arrowheads, pipes, or other stone implements which you or your
friends may have found in the fields near your home. Read chapter 14
of " McMaster's School History of the United States."
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION.
Government. In the earlier stages of human progress, when men
owned but httle property and so could own it in common, there was
no necessity for government as we know it. In time of war the ablest
warriors were chosen as chiefs to lead the various war parties, and in
times of peaoe the old^ men and women gave counsel to the others.
fHE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
In Eunua, however, nun gradually became civilized, and, becanse of
his greater knowledge, was able to acoamulate flocks and herds andother
valuaUe property. Then disputes arose as to the ownership of the
proper^, and it was seized by the strongest and shrewdest men, who
made the weaker people servo them. Thus, in many parts of Europe;
the people were divided into two classes: the rich and powerful families:,
or ariatocratg, who made all the laws, and the great mass of poor
people, who at last came to think that the aristocrats were nobles
bom to rule.
The strongest of the nobles iinally claimed to be tbe itin^,
monarch, of a great region suri-oiioding bis home, and to ■
the land and the people Uviiig on it ; but he gave parts-of the region
to the weaker nobles
living in it, on condi-
tion that they should
help him in war and ac-
knowledge that he, and
one of his family after
his death, should be
monarch. Thus
archies were established
in many parts of Kuia-
Monarchies. For
many years moii-
ai'chies were abso-
lute, or despotic ;
that is, the mon-
arch, with perhaps ^^ p^„,.^_ ^^^^^
a few nobles to ad-
vise him, made all the laws and couM
put any of his subjects to death at his
pleasure. Absolute monarchies still
exist in some parts of Eurasia. In
other parts, the people gradually b<^-
came so civilized that they learnfd
how to take some of the power awuy
from the monarch. In such couutrie-
the laws are made by a body of men,
composed partly of nobles and partly
of men chosen from the common people, while the mon-
arch can only approve or disappi-ove of the laws thus
made. Such are the governments of most of the coun-
tries of Europe to-day. They are called limited or cob-
stitution^ monarchies.
Republics. In some countries, when the common peo-
ple became strong and civilized, they decided to take all
the powers of government into their own bands and to
do away entirely with the monarch and nobles who held
office because of their birth. In such countries the people
elect a body of men to make the laws, and a chief officer,
or president, to see that the laws are executed. These men
hold office only a few years, and then others are chosen
to succeed them. Such a government is called a republic.
Our own government and most of the other governments
established by white meu in America, as well as a few of
the governments of Europe, are of this form.
Religions. The Jewish religion was proclaimed by
Abraham in southern Asia about four thousand years ago.
The Jews believe in one God and in the Old Testament.
St. Basil's, Moscow.
Jews are now found in all civilized countries, but most of
them live in Europe.
Christianity teaches that Jesus Christ is the Son of God,
and the Savior of maukiud. Christians believe in one
God and in the Holy Bible. This is the prevailing re-
li^on in Europe, Aiuerica,
and the other more highly
oi\ilized parts of the world.
About one fourth of mankind
piot'ess Christianity. The
L'hiof divisions are the Catho-
lif, the Greek Orthodox, and
tbe Protestant churches.
Mohammedanism was pro-
I'lainied by Mohammed about
tbiiteeu hundred years ago.
Mohammedans believe in one
tjod, lint the Komn is their
holy book. This is the pi-e-
viiilii)^ religion in most of
noithern Africa and
south westeru Asia.
ItsfoUowej-s include
about one tenth of
the people iu the
world.
Brahmanism is a
very old I'eligion of
southern Asia. Its
<'hief god is called
Brahma. This reli-
gion divides its fol-
lowers into classes,
or casteSf and the
iiierabei-s of differ-
ent castes may not
eat the same kind
of food, nor pm-sue the same kind of business, nor asso-
ciate with one another. More than one tenth of mankind
are Brahmanists,
Buddhism is professed by most of the people of eastern
Asia, and its followers embrace more than one third of the
human race. It denies the existence of a soul, but teaches
charity and kindness to all living things.
The more ignorant tribes of men are pagans. They
believe in many gods or spirits, and worship them, or idols
representing them. There are about as many pagans as
Brahmanists.
IHDUSTRIES.
A savage has comparatively few wants, and nearly all thetUngi
he needs are supphed by the labor of his own hands. He makes the
rude toob and weapons with which he procures raw materials, out of
which he prepares hb food, clothing, and shelter.
When man has advanced to the stage of bnrbarism, he has learned to
want more and better things, a more Cfrtain supply of food, better
clothing, and more perfect shelter. To supply these things better tools
and implements are necessary. Hence some of tbe people devote much
of their time to making tools, others to procuring food, and othera still
St. Petei'8, Some.
37
to Bome other indostry, while each exphonges the reeolt of liis labor Tor
the ueedful thintrs produced by othera. By suub dirition of labor each
ono leams to do Lis own special kind of work better than it oonld other-
wiso be lioae. But in the sta^ of barbsrisni, as in utvAgery, men's
v-ants do not extend much beyond the things that can be supplied
from their own neighborhood.
As man advanrrs in civilization, however, his wants increase very
greatly, and as he hat^ learned how to make roads, and ships, and
raibroads, he has comi' to depend upon nearly all parts of the world to
supply his needs. As the wants of ei«lized man have increased, so
has the diviidou of lalwr by which tliey are satisfied. Gradually it has
come about that each person more and more confines himself to a sinRle
kind of work or occupation, depending more and more upon thitst'
who do other kinds of work to supply his own different wants. Tliua
Tery many different occupations, or industries, have grown uj) wherever
<-ivilized man lives.
Tlie pi-fxluetioii of raw material for fotxl, clothing, and
shelter givos rise to fivo groat inihistries: — agriculture,
herding, fishing, lumbering, and mining. Tlie fitting of raw
material for u.'jo gives rise to tlie industry of miinnfaetur-
ing; tho distrihnfion of raw material and of the manufac-
turof.1 product gives rise to the industry of eommerc**, or
trade and transportation. In these seven industries the
greater part of civilized mankind finds occupation aud
<:'arns a livelihood.
AGRICULTURE.
Tho work of tilling tlie soil and raising ])tauts for the
use of man is calletl m/ricuHun: It is the most impor-
tant of all industnes, and gives oeenpation tn about one
fourth of the civilized workers of tlie world.
The preparation of tlic soil is important. If the land ia too wet it
must be drained, or the roots of the plants will decay. If it ia too dry dur-
ing the growing season, the water from the better-supplied regions may be
led to it by ditches, or the rain which falls at other seasona may be stored
in reservoirs to be used when needed. The watering of land in this way
is called irrigation. Some of the most productive parts of southern Asia
and the western United States are made fertile by irrigation.
Plants draw a part of their food from tlie ground tlirough their roots,
bnt all plants do not require the same kind of food. To prevent the soil
of a fii'ld from beconiing exhausted and poor, farmers plant, in succes-
sive years, crops which draw different materials from the ground. This
is called the relation of crops. Sometimes, instead of rotating crops,
there is added to the soil plant food of the same kind as the crops
have taken away. The materials added are called fertilisers. In parts of
Eurojw, where the land has been cultivated for hundreds of years, a
An inigiting canal in the CallfoiaU valley.
great deal of fertilizing material ia used, but in many parts of the United
States, where land is as yet plentiful and cheap, men have found it
cheaper to use new land than to preserve the old by fertilizing.
Many of the best farming lands of the world are in the
plains drained hy the great rivere of the temperate regions ;
but wherever there is soil watered and heated sufficiently
for jilants to grow, food is raised if there is a good market
witliin reach. The crops from the farms must be trans-
l)ortod to places where food materials are not produced,
and yet where there are many jieople to bo fed. Garden
vegetables and many kinds of fruit are grown in the
ueighborliooil of cities, for transportation over long dis-
tances is difficult and exiiensive.
Cultivated Plants. The chief food plants store nour-
ishment in their seeds and are called grains. Of these,
wheat, rice, coi'ii, rye, oats, and barley are the most im-
portant.
Wlteal forms the chief fond of the people of America and western
Europe. It grows best in a rather cool climate, and hence is extensively
cultivated in the lowlands of the temperate zones, both north and south,
but it also grows well in the highlands of the torrid zone. Why t It thus
happens that a crop of this important food is ripening in some part of
the earth during every month of the year.
Bice is raised in rather warm climates, and chiefly in localities that
can be ca.sily flooded.
Corn, though a tropical plant, grows very rapidly and thrives well
wherever the weather is hot ami moist during its short growing season.
It is one of the chief foods both of man and of the domestic animals.
Wlieat hArvcBting on tbe Central Lowland of tlie United States.
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
n grBdoallf became civilized, and, because of
his greater knowledge, was able toaocmnulato flocks and herds and other
valuable property. Then disputes arose as to the ownership of the
property, and it was seized by the strongest and shrewdest men, who
made the weaker people serve them. Thus, in many purts of Buropef
the people were divided into two classes: the rich and powerful familie!^
or aristocrats, who made all the Uws, and the great mass of poor
people, who at last came to think that the aristocrats were nobles
born to rule.
The strongest of the nobles finally olaiiued to be tlie kintf, or
monarch, of a great region surrounding Ui.'i honie, i
the land and the people hving on it; but he gave partsof the region
to the weaker nobles
living in it, on condi-
tion that they should
help him in war and ac-
knowledge that he, and
one of his family after
his death, should bo
monarch. Thus
archies wore established
in many parts of Eurs-
M(aiarchies. For
many years mon-
archies were abso-
lute, or despotic ;
that is, the mon-
arch, with perhaps
a few nobles to ad-
vise him, made all the laws and could
put any of his subjects to death at his
pleasure. Absolute monarchies still
exist in some parts of Eurasia. Iti
other parts, the people gi-adually b.'-
came so civilized that they learncil
how to take some of the power aw:i\
from the monarch. In suoh eouuti'i*'>
the laws are made by a body of men,
composed partly of nobles and partly
of men chosen from the common people, while the mon-
arch can only approve or disapprove of the laws thus
made. Such are the governments of most of the coun-
tries of Europe to-day. They are called limited or con-
sHttttional monarchies.
Republics. In some countries, when the common peo-
ple became strong and civilized, they decided to take all
the powers of government into their own hands and to
do away entirely with the monarch and nobles who held
office because of their birth. In such countries the people
elect a body of men to make the laws, and a chief officer,
or president, to see that the laws are executed. These men
hold office only a few years, and then others are chosen
to succeed them. Such a government is called a republic.
Our own government and most of the other governments
established by white men in America, as well as a few of
the governments of Europe, are of this form.
Religions. The Jewish religion was proclaimed by
Abraham in southern Asia about four thousand years ago.
The Jews believe in one God and in the Old Testament
t. BMil'a, Hoscow.
Jews are now found in all civilized countries, but most of
them live in Europe.
Christianity teaches that Jesus Christ is tlie Son of God,
and the Savior of mankind. Christians believe in one
God and in the Holy Bible. This is the prevailing re-
ligion in Europe, America,
and the other more highly
civilized parts of the world.
About one fourth of mankind
profess Christianity. The
(;hii?f divisions are the Catho-
lic, the Greek Orthodox, and
the Protestant ohurcbes.
Mohammedanism was pro-
rliiinied by Mohammed about
Iliiiteon hundred years ago.
Mohaiiimedans believe in one
Gofl, but the Koran is their
holy book. This is the pre-
reli^on in most of
northern Africa and
southwestern Asia.
Itsfollowei-s include
about one tenth of
the people in the
world.
Brahmanism is a
\ery old religion of
southern Asia. Its
chief god is called
Brahma. This reli-
yiou divides its fol-
lowers into classes,
or castas, and the
members of differ-
ent castes may not
eat the same kind
of food, uor pursue the same kind of business, nor asso-
ciate with one another. More than one tenth of mankind
are Brahmanists.
Buddhism is professed by most of the people of easteni
Asia, and its followei-s embrace more than one third of the
human race. It denies the existence of a soul, but teaches
charity and kindness to all living things.
The more ignorant tribes of men are pagans. They
believe in many gods or spirits, and worship them, or idols
representing them. There are about as many pagans as
Brahmanists.
nfDUSTRIES.
A savage has comparatively few wants, and nearly all thethiDgB
he needs are supplied by the labor of his own bands. He makes tbe
rude toola and weapons with which he procures raw materials, out of
which he prepares his food, clothing, and shelter.
When man has advanced to the stage of barbarism, he has learned to
want more and better things, a more certain Bapply of food, better
clothing, and more perfect shelter. To supply these things better tools
and implements are necessary. Hence some of the people devote mneh
of their time to ""^^ng tools, others to procuring food, and others still
St. Peter's, Borne.
THE KARTH AS A WHOLB.
Rye, oats, and harUy are oaltirated in the oool parte of nearly all conn-
tries in the temperate zones.
Some plants store nourishment in their tmdei^ound stems or in their
roots. The potato is a kind of uodergroond stem, but the beet is a root.
Both beloag to temperate climates, and both are used directly aa food,
but from the beet sugar is also made. About half of the sugar used in
the world is made from the beet. The other great sugar-producing plant
is the sugar cane, a kind of grass which looks like Indian com. It
requires a hot, moist climate,
Of fruits, the apple is the most important of the temperate zone, since
it can easily be kept throughout the winter. Grapes are very widely dis-
tributed ; oranges and lemons are i-aiscd in the warm partA of the tem-
perate regions. Bananas and dates form the chief food of man in some
tropical countries.
Tea is grown only in the temperate parts of the eastern hemisphere,
while coffet is a native of the tropical climate and is cultivated in both
The most useful draught and pack animals in different parts of the
world are the horse, the camel, the donkey, tlie elephant, the ox, the
llama, and the reindeer, though the dog is used in the northern part ct
North America to drag sledges, and in many parts of Eorasia to dimw
little wagons.
The chief use which man makes of animak, however, ia for food.
Cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry supply most of the animal food med
in the world-
Cattle are the most important food animals. They are raised in gmt
numbers to supply milk, butter, cheese, and beef. Pork ia not so whob-
some as either beef or mutton, but it is more easily preserved; Imbm
hogs are raised in enormous numbers, especially in regions where eon
can be grown to feed them, and in forest r^ons where thej can feedoa
the wild nuta, or mast.
The meat of these animals is eaten fresh or is preserved for nae I7
curing ; that is, by salting or smoking. A great deal of meat is cantiad,
as are also soups and meat extraeta
Live cattle ami sheep are j
m.'iise diatauees op cars or in eattls
-l]i[js, or the fresh meat is shipped b
ii'ud chambers.
I'ljullry are raised in great nuruben
in nearly all civilized countries, not
only for food but also for their eegs.
Both the live fowls and their eggb are
artii'les of export from many countries.
Sheop and goats are raised cLiolJy
for tlifir woo! or hsir, wliich is eon-
hemispheres. Tobacco grows well in the warmer parts of the temperati
zones where there is an ample rainfall. Our own country prodi
about one half of the tobacco of the world.
Fibers. Cotton is the most important plant cultivated for other pur-
poses than food. From this plant is obtained a fiber of wliich is made
the most widely used cloth in the world. The cotton regions of the world
lie in the moist lowlands of the temperate regions. Flax, from which
linen is made and linseed oil la obtained; and hemp and jute, fi
which rope and eorda^'e are manufactured, are also fiber plants, Tbej
grow in both warm and cool countries.
Supplemental Work. Bring specimens of useful plants to school to
fonu a collt-etioQ. Bring to school a description of one grain, or root,
or fniit, used by man as a food ; of one useful plant not used for food.
Write, nest day, a reproduction of one description given by a school-
mate. Read or recite " Ode for an Agricultural Celebration," or " Plant-
ing of the Apple Tree," by Bryant; and "The Huakers," by Whittier.
HERDING.
Man has domesticated siieli auimala etiefly as are use-
ful as beasts of burden or serve to supj^ily him witli material
for food and clothing. Name some such animals. Can
you think of some domestic animals not useful in these
ways t How are they useful !
The raising and breeding of domestic animals is closely
associated with farming and nearly every farmer pursues
this industry also to supply the needs of his own family.
In many parts of the world, however, especially in the
drier parts of the open grassy regions, whore the rainfall
is not sufScient for successful farming, the herding of
horses, ealtle, and sheep is the chief occupation.
Bog rsiaing in the Central Lowland, IHu
verted into elotliing; but their fleah is also eaten. The alpaca, which
yields a long, fine wool, ia kept in large herds in the Andes Moaut^na,
and in some parts of the world the hair of the camel is used in making
coarse shawls and carpets.
As men have grown more civilized they have learned to make greater
use of animal products. The skins of domestic animals are made Inte
leather. Bones, horns, and hoofs are used in making combs, buttons,
knife handles, and glue. The hair of cattle and refuse wool are used
in making felt, and the bristles of the hog in making brushes. What
use is made of down and feathers t Name some other uses of animal
Supplemental Work. Supply to the school collection such animal
products as you can obtain. Bring to school an account of one domestifl
animal, describing it, and telUng where and how it is raised, and what
are its uses. Write, next day, a reproduction of the account given by
one of your schoolmates Read or recite " Thu Drovers," by Whittier.
FISHING.
The most valuable fishing grounds of the world are the
shallow parts of the sea near the shores of the continents,
in the north temperate zone.
40
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
MINING.
Mining is the getting of minerals out of the ejirth. In
all parts of the world peopled by tlie white race, this iu-
dustry has increased more rapidly in recent yeaiB than
any of the other gi'eat industries, except that of trade and
transportation.
The most useful minerals are coal. inm. petroleum, cop-
per, gold, t^iivtr, tin, lead, ziu<-, iuid LiuiMiiig i^luin's.
mllmg a:
ashiag, Monta
Anthracite coal
Coal. The most importn 1 1 1
■branch of this iudustiy is tin-
mitiiug of coal, which is ex-
tensively used for fuel, and
for making ilUiminating gas.
Coal is found in all the grand
divisions, but by far the
greater part is rained in west-
em Europe and eastern North
America.
How is coal formed T (p. 22.) In
some places the coal beds crop out
at the sides of a valley, and the coal is Juined by iilnstiiiL; tU!iiir!:i iit,-Iit
into the bed; but in many places the coal c&n be readied ouly by sinkiup
a deep hole, or shaft, down to it frora the earth's surface. From the bot-
tom of the shaft, parallel and cross tnauela are made in the coal bed, and
then the coal between the tunnels is taken out. Railroad tracks are
laid in the mines, and on them trains of ears drag^d by mules, or some-
times by elet'tric enEines, carry the coal to the mouth of the mine, or to
the foot of the shaft, up which it must be hoisted to the surface.
The loinea are perfectly dark, and the miners are lighted about their
work by htlle lamps attached to their caps. Oases which may escape
into the mine from seams in the coal are sometimes ignited by these
lamps. A terrible eii)losion follows, and hundreds of poor miners may
be suffocated or buried alive by tbe falling roof of tlie mine. Mines are
nearly always rendered damp by the ground water which runs into thi'm.
Thw must be drained off through a tunnel, or pumped out up the shaft.
It is difficult to ventilate deep mines, and a eurrezit of fresh air must
often be forced down the shaft by fans run by machinery.
Iron. After coal, the most important product of the
mining industiy is iron. Like most of the other metals,
iron is not found pure, but is combined with other sub-
stances, fonning ore.
The ore is put into great furnaces with eoal, coke, or
charcoal. Tlie burning of this fuel melts the ore, and the
metal iron, set free, then flows off nearly pure. A sub-
stance called a Jiux is generally added to make the molten
ore more liquid. This process is called smelting.
Iron ore is found in nearly every country, but those
mines which are most convenient to coal have been most
worked; hence the great irou-mining regions of the world
are usually in or near the great coal-mining regions.
Iron ore is often found close beneath the surface of the ground, where
it is collected by pick, shovel, and scraper; but iron ore, as well asllie
ores of the other metals, l« also mined underground in much the same
manner as coal is mined.
Of all the melals, iron is the most useful. It can be molded and ham-
mered into any shape; it can be drawn into fine wire, or rolled into
thin sheets ; it can l>e made so soft that a pin will scratch it. or, in the
form of slet'l. so hard that it will cut glass. Make a list of ten uses to
which iron aud steel are put.
Gold and Silver are much scarcer than many of the
more useful metals. They do not wejir away by rusting,
as most metals do, and one or both of them are used as
money throughout the civilized world. Both metals are
Ui^iially fnund in veins in very old rocks, or in volcanic rocke
--!' PiM'niit:iiir I'LMi.ii-. How are these veins formed ! (p. 15.)
The rock bearing the gold b
(■rushed to the finest powder in a
"^lam;l mill," and the powder is
I hen washed with water containinir
;i substance which eslracts all tlie
^'old, hut leaves the rock.
Fine pieces of gold, or " gold
dust," are also found in the detrilui
■ if gold-bearing rock, from whidi
ibey may be separated by wasliiiig
aud sometimes by collecting on
iliiieksilver.
Stone is obtained in all jiartsof the
"iirUl. either from the detritus or
from quarries opened in the solid
Mac tune shop, New York.
rock. The stone is used not only for linildiiig purposes, but also for
makiug roads and pavemenls. Slate rock is used for roofs, and much
limestone as a flux in smelLine iron. Some Umestone, when highly
heated, yields the celnent and hme of which mortar is made,
Supplemental Work. Bring to the school collection speeimena of
minerals, irietnllic ores, or stones. Brini; to school an account of one
mineral product, or of one method of mining or quarrying. Writ* ne»t
day a reproduction of llio account given by one of your schoolmates.
40
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
Mining is the getting of minerals out of the earth. In
all parts of the world peopled by the white race, this in-
dustry has increased more rapidly in recent years than
any of the other great indastries, except that of trade and
transportation.
The most useful minerals are coal, iron, petroleum, cop-
per, gold, silver, tin, lead, ziue, and building stones.
Gold milling and washing, Montana.
Coal. The most important
branch of this industry is the
miniug of coal, which is ex-
tensively used for fuel, and
for making illuminating gns.
Coal is found in all the grand
' divisions, but by far the
gi-eater part is mined in west-
em Europe and eastern Nortli
America.
How is eoa! formed T {p. 22.) In
some places the cool beds crop out
at the sides of a valley, and the coal is niiucd by blaslitig tiuiiiels right
into the bed ; but in many places the eoal can be reaehcii only by sinldnj;
a deep hole, or shaft, dovm to it from the earth's surface. Prom the bol-
tom of the shaft, parallel and cross tunnels are made in the coal bed, and
then the coal between the tunnels is taken out. Railroad tracks are
laid in tiie mines, and on them trains of cars dragged by mules,
ttinoB by electric engines, carry the coal to the mouth of the mine, or to
the foot of the shaft, up which it must be hoisted to the surface.
The mines are perfectly dark, and the miners are lighted about their
work by httle lamps attached to their caps. Gases whii
into the mine from seanis in the coal are sometimes i^ited by these
lamps. A terrible explosion follows, and hundreds of v>oor miners may
be suffocated or buried alive by the falling roof of the mine. Mines are
nearly always rendered damp by the ground water which runs into tht-rn.
This must be drained off through a tunnel, or pumped out np the shaft.
It is difficult to ventilate deep mines, and a current of fresh air must
often be forced down the shaft by fans run by machinery.
Iron. After coal, the most important product of the
mining industry is iron. Like most of the other metals,
iron is not found pure, but is combined with other sub-
stances, forming ore.
The ore is put into great furnaces with coal, coke, or
charcoal. Tlie burning of this fuel melts the ore, and the
metal iron, set free, then flows off nearly pure. A sub-
stance called a flax is generally added to make the molten
ore more liquid. This process is called smeMing.
Iron ore is found in nearly every country, but those
mines which are most convenient to coal have been most
worked; hence the great iron-raining regions of the world
are usually in or near the great coal-uiining regions.
Iron ore is often found close beneath the surface of the ground, where
it is collected by pick, shovel, and scraper ; but iron ore, as well as the
of the other metals, is also mined underground in much the same
! coal is mined.
Of all tlie metals, iron is the most useful. It can be molded an<l liam-
inered into any shape ; it can be drawn into fine wire, or rolled into
thin sheets ; it can be made so soft that a pin will scratch it, or, in thfl
form of steel, so hard that it will out glass. Make a list of ten lUKSto
which iron and steel are put.
Gold and Silver are much scarcer than many of the
more useful metals. They do not wear away by rusting,
as most metals do, and one or both of them are used ae
money throughout the civilized world. Both metals are
usually found in veins in very old rocks, or in voJeanie rocks
of mountain regions. How are these veins foi-med T (p. 15.)
The rock bearing tlie gold ii
crushed to the flnesl powder in %
"stamp mill,'' and the powder it
then washed with water containing
a substance which e.^tracts all the
1,'old, but leaves the rook.
Fine pieces of gold, or "gold
dust," are also found in the detritni
of gold-bearing rock, from wbick
they may be separated by washing
and sometimes by collecting on
rjuicksilver.
Stone is obtained in all partsof the
world, either from the detritus or
from quarries oj'ened in the solid
Machine shop, New York.
rock. Thestone is used not only for building purposes, but at^o for
making voada and pavements. Slate rock is osed for roofs, and much
limestone as a Au.x in smelting iron. Some limestone, when highly
healed, yields the cement and lime of which mortar is made.
Supplemental Work. Brmg to the school collection specimens oi
minerals, tiietallic ores, or stones. BrinfT to school an account of one
mineral product, or of one method of miniug or quarrying. Write next
day a reproduction of the account given by one of your schoolmates.
42
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
materials were raised ; and the people of
the western part of Enrope rely upon tbe
people of the United States for much of theiv
wheat, flour, beef, and pork, and upon Aus-
tralia for part of their mutton. Nearly all
the tea used in tlio world comes from Asia ;
nearly nil tho coffee that we use comes from
South America ; and most of our sugar from
the West Indies, South America, and tbe is-
lands of the Paciflc. India rubber comes
from tlie equatorial renrions of South Ami rica.
Africa, and southeastern Asia, an<l m.iny
people in all tlie grand divisions lifflit their
homes at uiRht liy burning keroseiie vaaA<-
of the potroleuuL from t)iu wells in the United
Because of railroads and steamships ami
labor-sjiving machinery, all these, and hun-
dreds of other things, can be manid'aetured
and transported many thousi'.nds of miles
and then sold at a profit, and yet are so eiieap that few people are lou
poor to buy and use them.
As only the products not used at home are exported to other countries.
foreign commerce forms a very small part {about one seventh) of the
whole commerce of tho world.
Asaiuog
Means of Transportation. Goods are transported
not onlj' on railroads and sliip.s, but also by teams on com-
mon roads and by boats ou rivers
and canals. Teaming is necessary
in carrying goods to all the com-
mercial routes, but it is the most
expensive mode of trans^iortation.
A team can drag so small a load, and
travels so slowly, that if the distance
is great tho food and care of the
team ^ill cost as much as the load
is worth. Transportation by river,
canal, or sailing vescel on the ocean
is very cheap, though much slower
than by railroad or steamship, and
this method of transportation is still
much useil, especially for heavj', bulky articles ; but in the
more civilized countries most of the traffic is by railroad,
and about half of the ocean traffic is by steamship.
Aids to Commerce. Telegraph <'ablefi, laid on the sea
bottom, connect all the continents, so that information can
be .sent instantly to tho must distant countries ; and pnstal
routes have been established, by which, at little cofst, letters
may be quickly and surely delivered at ahuost any place
in tho world. The telegraph, the telephone, and the post
office are invaluable aids to commerce.
In order to promote foreign eommerce, cacli couutrj- has. in all tlie
large trading cities in the world, iiien culled amxtils to look afti.r tlu'
interests of its sailors and merchnnis who trade there, and to collect
information about what the penple of tin; country produce nnd what tlii-y
need. Most civdiw;d countries also issue maps of the ciwists and har-
bors, and build lighthouses and life-saving stations alon? tlie coasts.
JIany ciiuntries also deepen their harbors and rivers and build canals
connecting them. In some countries the government owns the railroads,
and in ne.irly all civilized countries it has aided in building them.
Supplemental Work. Slake a list of the articles on the breakfast
table this morning and try to And where each article came tiom, and
how it was nianufaetured. Write a history
of one article on your liai. Find whether any
article produced in your neighborhood enters
into our foreign or domestic commerce. Find
nut aboitt Roljert Fulton, Samuel F, B. Morse,
ijroorgo St^jihenfiou, Alexander (iraham Bell,
or any other inventor who has improved the
ruethods of ci
TOWNS AND CITIES.
Use. T<i\™s and cities are the
; wlici-f The trade and mana-
An Ameiican railway train.
A moilern ateamahip.
facturiug of the world are chiefly
centered. Neither grain and cattle
for food, nor cotton and wool for
clothing, nor lumber and iron for the
hundreds of useful things made from
tliem, nor petroleum and coal for
liglit and fuel, nor any other raw ma-
terials are usually produced in cities.
Bnt, if we want to buy any of these
things, we do not seek the place
where it is produced ; we go to a
town or a city, where all kinds of products are sent to be
manufa<rtured and .sold. Thus a city is a convenience Iwtb
to producers and to purchasers, and therefore it must be
within easy reach of lK>th. Ilence cities have usually
grown up at good harbors, ()r on navigable rivers or lakes,
or at the juncti<m of railroads; at waterfalls or rapids, or
near mines of some kind. Why are such places favorable
for the growth of cities f Among the cities and towns, the
one lliiit iran be mo.'^t easily readied by tho greatest num-
licr of jienple, and by the greut.'st amuunt and variety of
productw, is sure to grow to bi- the ljirge.-;t.
Try to find out why the tnwn in wjiich you live, or ihe town nearest
your hoiiie, is locat.'d wht'ie it is. It wu- IniiH tliere for name reason,
which probalily hits to do with tnidc' or miitiiifaeturing. A town, how-
ever, iriiiy grow »\i nbnut a ^-rear j^ehoul r,r ei.llffie, or at a place selected
as the sitit of govi'rrimcnl, or ki/'iM. of ;i couiitiy, or because it is a con-
venient or liiauliftil [ilai-e of residence for those doing business in a
miieh lar^'iT ncidjlioring city or town.
Features. The most striking feature of a large city is
Ihc gicat ntmiber of people that are crowded within it
The streets are lined ou both sides with houses, from two
46
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
Drainage. Name the two longest rivers of
the Central Lowland. Which flows south ! What
great river ba^ oocupiea the part of the Central
Lowland between the Miaussippi and Mackenzie
badns 1 la what general direction does the Nelson-
Saakatfihewan River flowl In what part of the
Central Lowland are Iho Great Lakes situated)
The divide ttetween the Great Lakes and the Mis-
sissippi system is so low that in some places the
water of the lakes may l>e easily turned into the
Mississippi system. Through what river does the
water of the Great Lakes reach the ocean 5 Into
what does the Rio Grando empty I What is the
general direction of its flow T
Name the three lar^st rivers of the PaciRc
slope. In what mountains do they all risef
In what direction do most of the rivers of tl>e
Atlantic plain flowT How do they compare in
length with those of the Central Lowland ; with
those of the Paoiftc slope f
Most of the great rivers of the grand division have their lit
in what divide t What is the only exception among thu grt'at rivers T
What parts of North America liave no drainage to the sea I What
becomes of the water of these regions 1
The Missouri is really the main stream of the upper
Mississippi system. Fi-om the tahle on p. l')9 tell bow tlie
Mississippi-Missouri ranks among the worltl's great rivers
in length. It is useful as a commercial highway.
Just below the Great Lakes the St. Lawrence is olj-
fitructed by rapids, so that canals are necessaiy for the
ascent of boats; but below tlie rapids hirgo seagoing
vessels ply dui-ing that part of the year when the river
and gulf are not blocked by ice.
Into what waters does the Mackenzie empty ; tho Yu-
kon; the Colorado; the Mississippi! All these watei-s,
at the points where tlie rivers empty, are nearly tideless,
and consequently these four large rivers have built great
deltas. How were these deltas formed f Tliere is a bar
at the mouth of the Columbia, though it is well covered
with water even at low tide. The estuary of the St. Law-
rence is a submerged valley.
The northern half of the great Central Lowland has
thousands of lakes. Why is this part of the grand divi-
sion rich in lakes! (p. 20.) They are so numerous, and
many of them are so close together, that the usual mode
of travel is by canoes;
these are carried on
the shoulders of the
travelers from one
lake to another across
the short divides.
Such a divide is there
called a portage, from
a woni which means
" to carrj-."
Climate. What part of
North America haH cold
winters and temperate
suinmersf Which part has
t«mperate winters and hot
summers ! Which parts
are always hott Which
ib. ^
rjC"
~X^«
Ite^
C^*^
^S^
r*'3'.^
a ^
i^ '^efr
per a
re S
jn\metj\j
3 -
^'%
■:*s
-.(t^
iJ^^y
{ ^%'
.'ii'
«'>
^p*<.„
\.'
^ M*^
''7
NSv^/'
tn^.
a
-^
^T'
-r 1
A
1 w a
y s
■^
tky-ir-
UEATBELTO
)■
parts are always temperate T Which parts hava
cold winters and hot summerst What port of
North America lies in the trade-wind re^ouT
(map, p. 26.) Wliat winds prevail over the gttaiu
part of North AmerieaT
The central part of the west coast is
always temperate, because the prevail-
ing westerlies, which have the Dearly
uniform temperature of the Pacific
Ot-ean, warm the coast in winter and
cool it in summer. By the time the
winds reach the eastern coast they have
acquired the temperature of the land
over which they have traveled; hence
the east coast is colder in winter and
hotter in summer than the west coast
Along tho northwest coast the prevail-
ing westerly winds deiwsit copious rainfall as they ascend
the abrujit slope of the great highland region. What
pni-t of this coast is crossed l)y the tropical calms! (p. 26.)
Are these calms accompanied by wet or by dry weatherl
Hence the climate in the region north of the Golf of Cali-
fornia is quite dry. In the southern part of North Atom-
ica tho northeast trade winds bring copious rains to the
oast slopes ill tho winter half of tlio year; but in summer,
when the heat equator lies farihest north, monsoon winds
blow toward it from the Pacific and bring rain to the soutb-
west coasts. Farther north, the westerly winds, which have
lost their moisture on tho west side of the mountains, reach
the plateaus as dry winds. In the eastern half of the grand
divisif)n, however, where tin? southerly winds in cyclones
bring vai)or from the Ciulf of Mexico and the Atlantic, there
is abundant rainfall.
Supplemental Work. Draw a circle to represent the weirtem hemi-
sphere, and make a sketch map showing what part of the hemisphere is
covered by North America. Draw, on a larger scale, the outline of this
grand division. Model North Ainericn. Write a compariran of the cli-
mates on tho eastern and western coasts of North America.
VEGETATION AND ANIMALS.
In what part of North America are there dense forests I Why an
these .-egions densely woododi Where are the r^ons of more open
fore.sts I Whore are the
regions of prassy lands ;
of tnndras T What are
tundras T Where arc the
desert regions? Why are
these parts of North Amer-
ica deserts 1
Animals. (Keview
the lesson on the North
American life region,
pp. 31, 3:2.) Along the
Arctic coasts of North
America tho largest
animals are the polar
bear and the nntsk (ix.
Farther south, in the
open forests, range the
3 S i s, -.f
50
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
ftlinost to sen kvt'l, rcdiicinp: it to a ]i>w pmtplain (|), 18). wliil<> il]<' <!e-
tritiis worn from it was ik'positiMl in nearly livi-l layirs oti llie wa bot-
tom to tlie eat-t of the Fall line, whvrv it {frjulniilly banlciii'd intii rock.
Theu both regious were slowly uplieaTed, ami tbo newlv made layers
of rock became the lnw, flat Tidewater itgioii. The upheaval of
the Pieilmont region qiiickcnc^d the i;urront of its streams and I'li-
abled thorn to eiit their present valleys iu its nearly level Biirfaee iiiid
render it somewhat i'oukIi and hilly ajjuiii. Thus ihe Tidr'uater iV(jion
was made beneatii the sen, while the Pifilmont repinn was formed by pii)-
longed entaiou. After river valleys IiikI biini \nnii iu the Tidew.iiei'
region some parts of it sonk sU^rbtly, pemiitlinfi the sen I" extend far iiji
tUe valleys ti> form estuaries. Find New Yoi-k, Del;iwai-v, and Chesa-
peake bays. They were made in this way.
Xortlimit of till' Hudson Kivi- tlir .\ll;ititic jilaiii is
liaiTOWPi" iititl is <'(Hn]>nP('(l mainly of lln' i'ii'iliriniil I'v^^imi,
whieii exti,'iiils iu most i-lai-.-s U, ilie svnen.-ist. Tln'i>- ils
hard rocks fonii Imld lu'inllaiids ;iiiii \\'\'j\\, vocky isj.'ts.
between which are dcfp fiords ainl slicltiM-t'il sounds. Tlif
whole ri.'^ioii is eovored witli tin- remains of tin? old Lau-
rciitiaii glat'icr — {^ravcl.s, i-jays, liuf^t^ liowldfrs, and I'on
backed glacial hills. Many of "the ohl vidh-ys w
dammed or partly filled by the frhicial drift, aliove wli
Iak((S fonnRd, and tlie streams tlnis tiirni'd from llieir old
courses have had to cut new channels in tlic iiard rocks.
These channels are not yet worn down to uniform slojies;
ihevefore the stn^am.s aliouml in falls and rapids.
Long Island and the smaller isLiuds east of if, as well ns the hook-
shaped peninsula of Ca\ift Cod, are Inrpely composed of the clays and
gravels heaped up in the terminal moraine aloii); the meliin;^ eD<l of this
old glacier.
TOPICS ON THE ATLANTIC PLAIN.
I. Northern Part. Width. Surface: hills; lakes; soil. Coast:
ridentations; pnrjeetions; inlands.
II, Southern Part. Western region: surface; drainnt;e; forma-
tion; name. Eastern region: snrfaee; coast -borders, iiidentatii'us;
drunago; formation; name. Fall line: reason for; formation; value.
THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS.
What region hes west of the Atlantic pl.ain t (maji, p. 48.) Between
what two gulfs docs this regimi lie f Measure tbe length of the region,
using the scale <if miles.
South of Hudson River, the eastern half of the Appa-
lachian re^rion consists of a series of long, narrow motni-
tain ridges, nearly parallel to one another, and
Tbe north.TD part of the Appa:achiaD ridge and valley belt.
rated liy wide and fertile valleys. This part ')f the i-egion
i.s called the ApjiillfirJ/idi/ ri(l<ii'. aiiil valliy lM:lf.
height
The ridges are of n.^arly unif.
mile. They li.ive reniarkiiJ.ly siii'
range is most mnssiv<! and irn-irular.
toiiiae Hiver ( It grows higher I nwani
About hi.w high is it ? (p. 45.) The vii
lougeirtand widest of the Appnlacli
little lesii than h:ilf a.
>Timmits, The eastern
What is it called south <.f I'o-
le south. Find Mount -Mitdiell.
■y just west r.£ Bine Kidge is the
Viill.-ys, Tiiis '-Great Valley^
exteniLs southwest from the lludsoti to the Alabama Itiver.
Tlie western half of the Appalachian region is a broad
upland, liaving abont tlic same ln'ijrht on the east as the
Appalaclnan ridges, but dccrea.sing in elevati<m towanl
the west. Tlie streams have worn deep, narrow valleys
inio ils surface, thus cutting it into a number of de-
taclie.1 jilateaus, ealled the Allcfihinii/ plnfcaHS.
Trace the divide of Ihe .Mlantie slope southwest ward
from the source of tlie Hudson. Near which .-^ide of the
Appalachian region does it lie iu the north ; in the
' south? In the north the larger streams tlow soulhcaRt
Tbe Lehigh water gap
Tbe Delaware water gap between Pcnnsylva
UNITED STATES.
51
The Praihe plaias, easteni Kansas.
to the Atlantii;, crossinf:? the mountain ranges one after
another in water gaps. Name three such streams. In the
south, on the contrary, the larger streams rise in the east-
em range and are tributaries of the Ohio, to the north-
west. They have cut deep gorges through the whole
width of the plateau to reach tliat river. Name two sucli
etreams. These gorges and water gaps are of great use to
commerce in affording low routes across the mountains.
"Wlien tie Appalaohian Mountains were first upheaved above the sea,
the rocks in the eastern half of the repon were thrown into many long
folds or waves, which were crowded close together. Moet of tlie roolt
layers in tie folds are quite soft, but some of them are very hard. The
erosion of agea carried away the tops of the folds (p. 11), exposing the
edges of the layers within, and reducing the re^ou to a peneplain near sea
level. Then this leveled region was again upheaved, but so slowly that the
larger streams flowing across it to the sea could cut their channels across
the hard layers as fast as the region rose. The branches of the larger
streams, from the right and left, rapidly eroded the soft layers as the
region rose, forming the long Appalachian valleys, while the hanl layers
in the sides of the old folds were eroded more slowly, and were thus left
projecting as the parallel, even-topped Appalachian ridgos.
In the western half of the Appalachian region the rock layers are
nearly level. The surface is now composed of a hai-d and thick layer,
which weathers very slowly, and as it rose it was cut through only by
the narrow valleys of tlie larger streams ; so that this region now remains
as the rougli upland called the Alleghany plateaus.
Find where the glacial moraine crosses the mountains.
North of this the Appalachian region was once so deeply
covered by the Laurentian glacier that only the highest
mountain peaks projected above the ice. The glacier
widened many of the valleys, rounded and softened the
mountain outlines, aud left the region covered with drift.
TOPICS ON THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS.
1. Northers Part. Valleys- formation; drainage — lakes, rivers,
falls. Mountains: shape; position.
II. SoDTHERN Part. Western region; .slope; surface. Ensteru
region : ridges — formation, height, shape, direction, chief peak ; val-
leys — shape, formation, chief one. Drainage : northern ; southeru ;
nsea of river valleys.
THE CENTRAL LOWLAND.
What three slopes of the United Slates he mostly or entirely in the
Central Lowland? (map, p. 4S.) What rivet system drains most of the
Central Lowland in the United States f What is the largest eastern
tributary of the Mississippi I Name the three largest western tributaries.
What is the largest system of the Oulf slope, after the Mississippi f
Name several other streams of the Gulf slope west of the Mississippi
system ; several east of that system.
The Central Lowland slopes from the Alleghany pla-
teaus imperceptibly south westward to the Mississippi
River, where a more rapid but still imperceptible as-
cending slope begins and continues to the very foot of
the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of over a mile.
The surface of this vast region is remarkable for its
smoothness. In the main it is broken only by the
" bluffs," or hillsides which border the broad flood plains.
Trace the terminal moraine through this region. North
of its low, gravelly "kettle hills," the country is thickly
covered with glacial drift and contains thousands of
lakes ; so that this region may be called the Lake plains.
Find it on the map.
In the drift-covered region south of the moraine most
of the glacial lakes have been drained or filled with sedi-
ment. The uplands of this region, and of the countiy
to the south aud west, were grassy prairies when first
visited by white men. The region may therefore be
called the Frame plains. Find it on the map.
From the mouth of the Ohio trace lines to the southeast
and to the southwest. Into what do nearly all the streams
south of these lines empty I This region is called the
Gulf plain. Toward the coast it is much like the Tide-
water region.
Through the center of the Oulf plain the mighty Mississippi meanders
in a great flood plain seventy miles wide. This is one of the most fertile
regions in the world, and contains many farms or plantations. Letees,
or embankments, have been built along the river to prevent overflows.
. During high water a break, or crevagse, sometimes occurs, and then the
country far and wide is covered with water. The mouth of the river pro-
'. jects for int4> the Gulf beyond the even curve of its shore line. Why t
I Where are the Ozark Mountains I They are the most
I rugged part of the Central Lowland. What river divides
j this region into two parts t North of this river the land
I consists of rugged plateaus. South of it, however, the
rocks have been folded and eroded into ranges of lulls
I and low mountains.
A levee on the lower Hisslssippi Siver.
52
PARTS OF THE EABTH.
TOPICS ON THE CENTRAL LOWLAND.
I. Slopes. Kastfrn. Westeru. Northern. Soutbern.
It. RiTERs. Cliief: basiu; divides; branclios; banks; inniitli.
Other riverH.
III. ReoiONS. Northern : ct^e ; surfiito ; coverinp. Central ; limits ;
covering. Southern: drainage; covering; cott.st. Mountains; position;
northern part ; iiouthem part.
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLAND.
About how mueli of the United Slates is enilir; A in ihe lioi-ky
Monntain highland i (map. p. 48.) About iiow tuiu-li oi the width i.f
tho hit-'liland lies east of tlie Koi-ky Momilain ehaiu 7 Ti-;ice thnuifrh thi.
highland region the divides uf the Iwn grt'ai river basins west i>f the
contiiienlal divide. Wliat is peimliar about tli.- dr.-iiiiaL"' brtweea these
basins ! Wliat does this peeuHarit y imliente about tin- i-liniai.- ?
Most of thiy region is quito dry. Only ils hiirluT parts
receive eiioufjli ruiufall to siiiiport I'orcsi ircnvtli ; lln'
geueral surt'uce of the i)lat<'atis in some phirfs is a triu'
dosert. East of tlio Kocky Mountains the liij^lilaml di'-
seends iiiiperet'ptibly into tlii- lowland plains, and, as it
has the same general siiioothiiess of siirl'aec, it i.s called
the (>rciU J'hiitis.
The lurfn-r stn'aius llowiug ai
choked with the siind brought in
are widened faster tlian ihcy an' i
liroad and i<halluw. In siinie plaei
roek lias Iwcm erodi-d into a muzi
diffleult to travel across these plai-f
i-oss the (ireat I'hniis aiv ki'].! so
ly Iheir iriliiiiari.'s, that the valh^ys
^■pened, and an' tlu'ivt'oiv f.i'iienilly
* ti>ivjiril till- north, however, the .-iol't
at dijep gidlirs. As it is therefoiT
i. they are known ns i.W Limh.
The " Bad Lands," South Dakota.
The FioHf/ Moinitdhm occupy the highest exicnsivc part
of the highland. The base of tlicsi? momitains is nearly
li miles high, while the ranges themselves rise betwtjen
one and two mile.s liighei-. The h)wer slojies are t'orest-
chid; the jagged crests are bare i-ocks exoe^tt whou cov- '
eretl with t>now.
Pinil the bivak h( the eliain known as SwiHi /'i". North ..f this the
rauiri'') iiro quite irivgutar in direction, Siime of ihnu an' the ri']|in:itits
of r<«-k folds some are uph.'avod and lilted bl.H-k, of ro.-k, jini! oth.-rs
are foritu-il of voleuuie outflows, though the only itidieati.ui of present '
voleanie iidivily is a wonderful p^yser region near the -•■iiuret; of the
Yellowstone. Smith of the pas:i the rangi-s ai-e more nearly parall.'l.
As a rule, .-aeh ranp? is a single lin.ail rock fold, from whi.-h the t..;i
layers have been eroded away, thus oxi»o»iug the hard granite nnk
which now f(nms the higher, central part of the range. Between the
ranges arc wide, grass- cari>etcd valleys, or " parks."
Crater ot Castle Geyser, Wyoming.
NVIn'ii the f/i-fiit /ihiti'tiif rrtfinii west of the Kocky
.Mcjiintains was iipheavrd, lli>' rocks were broken inti,>
gi'cat lihicks, many miles in lengtli. Some of them were
lit'led liiirlier tlian <dhers, tormitig plaletiiis at ditfereiit
levels, s,-|uiratcd l.y lines of clilf.s. Other blocks were
greatly tilled in rising, tlic upturned edge forming a
range of itioimtains, and thus tlie surface of the plateau
niustrating the tilted block structure of the Plateau region.
W'lier.' ai-.- till' (■<.l'.,,,h;„ j,h,t.<;,^ > Alter the upheaval in that rpginn.
liiva fori-ed its way up tlirnui;li ihi' lissuii's, and spread over the surfaer.
({eprat.'d ourll.nvs. nie.tin^'aadov,.rhippiiiL', eovi-n-d nearly the wheW
leirioii with lava to a gnat di ptli. roaqdetelv bnrving nianv of the up-
heaved and tilled r<K-ks.
Into lliis vasi lava jdaivau Snakr Kiv.'V has out a narrow eauvon
whieh is ill sonii' pla.-cs thiv,- fourths of a mil.- dei-p.
Where are the Cidurail: ,Mvaw ! Hei-e there were only sliulit oul-
llnws of lava, and the region is divided inio many plateaus, some hiirfi,
sonu' low, s.-parate.l by long lines of dills al.mg the si.les of the ui-
heaved bloeks. The r.'gion is mnarkable for the deep, narrow eanvons
in vhieh ni'arly all the slivaiiis How.
TliiSf slri-ams liavo b.'.^n flowing in tlieir present channels througii-
out murh of the period of npln^aval, and have deej)ened their eliaanel*
about as fast as Ihi' siiri-ouiiding i-ountry rose, and much faster lliau
wealliiTinir eould widen tlii' .'haniK'ls in that dry ii-gion, H.-uee th"
.-hiirmels havi- bec-oni.- narrow and imjiassidd.' goig.'s or eanyons, in
What [iiniiiit^Mii ran>;r bonh^rs the iijip.T I'olorado basin on l)i.' west '.
Tiie rcgicui between this niii-e and llir f^ierra NiA-ada. exti'Udin- SL-mh
lolhi' liulfof Oilifoi-nia. i-llirdrifst oiirl of t!i,. l-nil.-d Siat.s. Therr
an- few |nrtLian<'nl sln-ani-. What b.- s of tli,.ir water f Why \*
■■A\i;\ II
■.If /;.'
The ni.tihed ..de..s nf ihe bl,>,-ks i.ilo whi
it ros.' have I n ,-y..,\.-\ into nnini'reus l..v
i-!urg.-. Il.'tue..n ihes.' are bn.ad. l.vel p!;:
washed doun fmin the niountaiiis. DnriiiL'
falls, shallow lak.'S furin in many of l)i
M>a.soii thev evapnrat.'. Iriiviii- iheir b.-ds It
About 111.' litii'- that Thr Liiiivnti^in dae
alle;
of North Amt-rica, c-xleii>ivi
(iradually the climate beeai
iiid t<outli mountain
■d fnimthedetriitL*
rui when some rain
bnt during the dry
ted with Mill.
■ov.ri'd the eastern i>art
hikes eovei'.'d ni.ieh of the Qreat Kisiu,
e drier, and the lakes became «
UNITED STATES.
S3
Old Uke terracea, OUb.
they evaporated. Great Salt Lake and a few smaller lakes are rem-
nants of these old inland seas. Around the ed^'eg of the basin are now
found several Dearly level terraces which mark different heigbts of these
old great lakes as tbeir surface gradually receded.
Along the west side of the plateau region the upheaval
has resulted in two prominent mountain ranges whose
tops, like those of the Rocky Mountains, rise from one to
two miles higher than the general surface of the plateau.
What are the names of these ranges t
The Sierra Neeada is an enormous block of rock uptilted along its
eastern edge, so that its surface slopes lo the west. The dry eastern
aide is short and steep. The long western slope, however, is well
watered. Why I The slreama running down this long- slope have cut
<3eep canyons, leaving a succession of long mountain spurs between.
There were outflows of lava in the Sierra Nevada, but north of Lassens
Peak the outtlowa were so great tliat the tilted blocks are generally
buried, and the impression is given that the Cascade Mountains are entirely
composed of outflows of lava. The outflows here built up huge volcanic
coues which now form the highest peaks of the Cascade Mountains. Find
ten peaks north of Lassens Peak. These are all old volcanoes, some of
which are probably not yet eiliuet. Mt. Rainier, the highest, is nearly
three miles high, and several of the others are high enough to be always
capped with snow.
TOPICS ON THE ROCKY HOUHTADT HIGHLAIfS.
I. Pi,ADi8 AND Plateaus. Eastern: surface; river valleys — south,
north. Western : general appearance ; formation ; northern part — for-
mation, valley; central part — hmits, surface, drainage; southern part
— surface, valleys, formation,
IL Mountains. Eastern: northern part — appearance, formation;
sonthem part — ranges, valloys. Western : southern range — formation,
slopes, streams; northern range — formation, peaks.
ni. Climate. R^ons: western; eastern; mountain tops; Great
BasiB ; lakes. Effect : on surtace ; on vegetation.
THE PACffIC COAST REGION.
What mountains closely border the Pacific coast T What mountain-
ons island lies at the northern end of these ranges! By what strait is it
separated from them T
The Coast Ranges are much lower than the Sierra Nevada
and the Cascade Mountains. They are the remains of wide
rock folds. While they were heing elevated they were a
chain of mountainous islands, like Vancouver Island, or
high peninsulas, like Lower California, and like them were
bordered on the east by long, narrow sounds or gulfs.
Mt. Bamiei, Waahington.
Continued elevation has brought the bottoms of these
gulfs slightly above the level of the sea to form the two
great lowland valleys of the region. What are their names t
The bottoms of these valleys have been rendered very fertile by the
fine detritus washed into them from the bordering mountAina, so that
now they are among the most fertile parta of the country. Through
what bay does the drainage of the California valley now reach the ocean T
It occupies the site of an old strait somewhat like the present Strait of
Juan de Fuea. What great river flows across the northern valley t The
deeper northern part of this valley is still occupied by a small island-
studded arm of the sea. What is its name T
The upheaval of the Rocky Mountain highland and of the Pacific
coast region hiis ocoupied thousands of years, but this period is really
very short in comparison with the great age of the earth, and it has been
the latest period in the earth's long history. The Appalachian Mountains
were already old and had been worn down by ages of erosion long be-
fore the region of the western highlands had appeared above the sea.
Thus, in comparison with the Appalachians, the western mountains
are very young ; they are among the youngest mountains in the world.
But it is thought that the upheaval of the western highland is not
yet completed. The region is still subject to earthquakes, caused by
slight movements of the great blocks into which the region is broken,
and some of its volcanoes, though they appear to be nearly extinct,
still show occasional signs of activity.
TOPICS ON THE PACIFIC COAST REGION.
I. Ranges. Position. Eitent. Height. Formation.
II. Vallbvs. Fonnation. Divisions. Drainage. SoiL
111. AOE. Real. Comparative. Evidences of.
CalifomiA vaUey and Siena Nevada, C&Ufoiou.
54
PAETS OF TflE EARTH.
CLIMATE.
In what zone is the main part cif the riiili>.l Stiito:; ; The north
temperate heat belt travels northward in sumiuiT and smilhward in
winter. WhyT In sumniyr it is si> far north that its souihern ed(n- or-
cnpies the position represented by the dotted line in the left-hauil chart
above. All the country south of this line is in the hot belt at that sonsijn.
In winter, however, the edge of the hot bflt is in Mesioo, ami the tt'iii-
perate belt covers only the southern part of the United States, while all
the eountrj' nortli of the heavy li
e in the chart is in the eojd belt.
It thus follows that, as refiianls smniiin- ami winter
temperature, there are four cliinutio belts or rcjiio'is in the
United States. Name and locate them from the chart.
Why is the Pacific coast always temperate, but not the
Atlantic coast? (pp. 26, 46.) Explaiii wliy the tem]>eratf
belt in summer and the cold belt in winter extend fai-thiT
south in the Rocky Mountain
region than elsewhere (p. 24).
While the northern part ot the
United States is generally cooler
than the southern part, the difference
ia but slight during the anmnjer dnj-s,
which are almost equally warm in
all parta of the country east of the
Pacific coast region. The great dif-
ference is in the winters, which are
much longer and colder iu the north
than in the south.
In the region shown by the dots
in the middle chart at the top of the
page, there is no day in the year
whose average temperature ia below
freezing. The number of freezing
days in a year increases north-
wardly over the shaded portion of the chart, the first line showing
where there are thirty days of freezing weatluT, the i^ei-ond line
sixty days, and so on. In Ihe central portion of the northern Ixiuudary,
how many months are tln^re whose average temperature is below freez-
ing t How many days is thatt
Throughout the United States, east of the Pacific coast
re^rion, but especially in the northern or northeastern half,
the wGiither is subject to great and vapid changes at all
seasons. These are caused by the cyclones or cyclorlc
storms which are ahnost always drifting eastward over
the country. What is a cyclone f {p. 2G.)
The effect of a cyclonic storm upon the weather is illustrated by the
chart in the center of the page. The point of the heavy ari-ow lies in a
storm center, around and into which the winds are wliirliug, as shown
by the light arrows.
To the east of the center the winds come from the south and south-
east and make the weather warm. What is the direction of the winds
to the wi'st of till' storm ei-nterf These winds l>ring cool or cold
Wfather lo that region. Why !
Hut the sii.rm center is moving all the time. Twenty-four hours
l>efore it nai-hid the position ' ' it w.is at B ; and a day liefore that at
A; while obsi^nations on many cyclones indicate that a day's drifting
froiri <' will pr-.h'ihhi carry it to the neighborhood of D, Thus, as the
slcinn drifts rapidly eastward over the countrj', it pushes wanner weather
along iti front of it, and drags colder weather along in its rear.
In Die ■■iistiTii half of thi' country the southerly winds in front of the
cyol'iuo ari' vupor-ladioi whi^n they leave the Gulf of Mexico, but are
sotiLcwhat chilU'd as tliey advance northward; hence cloudy, rainy, or
snowy weathiT swoops over that part of the couiitrj- in front of the
drifting cycloni-. When the storm center is far west of the Gulf, how-
ever, the simtherly winds in front of it conie from the drj- highlands
instead of from the Uulf, and hence give little rain to the western half
of the Uniteil States, The northerly winds on the western side of the
advance southward, and hence are
Why t
Cyclones follow one another so
rapidly that there are almost alwayi
one or more storm centers in the
United States. The observen of
the United Stales Weather Bnrem
take dailj' observations of the
weather in different parts of die
country, by which they are aUe to
locate the existing storm oenten,
and by judging in wh&t dinelioB
and how far the oyclone, irith iti
warm wa^'e, cold wave, and rainiiid
cloud regions, will advance dnring
the next twenty-four hourB,theyat«
able to determine the " weatlier
probabilities" for the following d«r-
In the rainfall chart above, the
regions shaded by lines would Mch
year be covered more than twenlj
water remained where it fell. This
all kinds of farming. In the parts (A tlw
•h unshaded, the rainfall is less than
r successful fai-ming, except in some
occur during tlie few weeks when the
inches dec^p by the rainfall, if th
amount b* ample f'<
United Slates show
twenty inclios and is loo 1:
parts of the north where thi
J by do
gro'
,ng crops
l>St 1
rd 1
. Iio
or f;.r
, th..s,. .vgi.,r
m half ,.i the
region of the
iirht t
ufall.
, irrigutioi
n hea\'ier rain-
why the Pacific
Supplemental Work. K.ad chapter II, on Weather and Weather
Predictions, iu Waldo's " Klementjiry JK-iioroIogy."
GOVERNMENT.
N'ame several forms "f govoninifiit (p. 3C). Wliat is the fona of gov-
eriiment in the United States ! Who has the power under this form t
am
ft -S ^ ■ -5
£3 ► s g|
' E tS-S ,
«C5 2 a ^ I
S S ■£ ' i'l
3 - -S E 8 «
I (3 * 'J § 3
111 ill
5 -E -g a ^fc
e » tS ,5 -g ^
a • 0-33
Ibiii-
s as i%s
8|I|1I
iijjjj
.Is-' 51
■ill i •
1 2 .8 s a
UNITED STATES.
B^on iaiiim§ the fjlbunng leisoni deooie itttral dayn to tlie ntudg qf the
map on the oppotite page, until you can name or locate tcithout hetitatiim any
$laU or lenitorg M the littk population map below.
P(»>QLATION AND PROGRESS.
Imagine a north and south lino and two east and west lines to be
drawu across the United States, dividing it roughly into quarters as in
. the map below. Which quarter has the densest population 1 Which
quarter ranks nest in density of populatioo T What part is verj- thinly
peopled! With whnt climatic region dt>es the thinly settled region
nearly correspond I (p. 51.) With what great physical r^on t
DENSITY
OF popin^TioN ^
Population. The eastern half of the United States con-
tains nearly nine tenths of the people in the country. At
the close of the Revolutionary Wav there were about four
milUon people in the United States. In what part of the
country did most of them livef What is the population
now ! (p. 157 ) Over what part of the country has it
spread? Such a rapid increase and spread of population
has never before been known in the histoiy of the world.
It has been caused by the millions of people, who, at-
tracted by our cheap and fertile lands and the great op-
portunities for success in life under our free government,
have left their homes in Europe and come to settle
in the United States, as thousands still do evei'y
year.
People have come from all countries, but mostly
from Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and the
Scandinavian countries. "Whatever their nationality,
however, they soon adopt our language, manners,
and customs, and become thorough Americans,
Most of the European immigrants have landed on our northeast
coast, and have moved inland to seek new homes. Hence the
northeastern quarter of the country is not only most densely settled,
but has the largest foreign population.
Few immigrants knd in the southeastern quarter, and most of
the people in that region were bom in this country. Hence there
are few foreigners in that quarter; but there are about as many
negroes there as foreigners further north.
What races inhabit the thinly settled region \ (p. 49.) There
are many more whites than Indians, and most of them Tere bom
in the United States.
On tbe Pacific coast there is a large foreign population. They
are mainly Europeans who have crossed the country from the east
ooiast; but about one fourth of the foreiguera are Chinese. To
what moe do they belong t
Progress. No other highly civilized nation occupies so
targe a continuous territory as the United States, or is so
well fitted for the successful pursuit of so many branches
of human industry. Nowhere else in the world is there so
vast a number of highly civilized and energetic people
living under a single government, speaking the same lan-
guage, and having the same general customs and standards
of life.
Because of these advantages, industries of all kinds have
increased in this country even more rapidly than the pop-
ulation, so that to-day the United States, though one of
the youngest, is one of the greatest nations in the world.
Not only is the total product of all the seven chief indus-
tries pursued by man greater in this country than iu any
other, but the product of each of these industries is
gi-eater than in any other nation. Make a list of the
seven great industries of man.
By most of these industries the people in the United
States produce some articles in such large quantities that
there is sufficient to supply the wants of our own gi-eat
population and to leave a surplus for export to other
countries where the article is needed. Thus the people of
nearly every country in the world have come to rely upon
the workmen of the United States for some of the neces-
saries of life.
Supplemental Work. Make enlarged oopies of the maps opposite
p. &1 and the diagram opposite p. 124 in Gannett's "Building of a
Nation," for your schoolroom waU. Head or recite " The Axe of the
Settler," by Mary E. Hewitt, or "The Pioneer," by Lowell. Read,
chapters 1, 4, aad 15 in " Children's Stories of Amenean Progreaa," by
llenrietta Christian Wright.
PRODUCTIOH.
Agriculture. More of our people are engaged in farm-
ing than in any other occupation. What parts of the
country are best adapted for farming? (p. 54.) Why t
IHylfflMi^
»v
W'
im^
Siii::_„
jJl^f^"
P
Inuolgraiits landing at Hew York city.
111!!
3 — 5 g fs J,
nr^H
jS^gS.,
iss|gs
i'\m
PI §5
S|iS|i
2 S tJ .| -g 2
.2 § -S .£ 5 JJ
*llMi
vcr and th
thembord
o 3« I'S'o
M5|1l
11^111
l^eliS
1|lh^
Am
■ a««^-&
4ili".
UNITED STATES.
57
B^on tdkinff the foRowinff lessofU deeote tevtrat days to Vie study of tfte
MOp on the oppotile page, until you can name or locate teithout hesitation atty
itate or lerritory on the little population map bdow.
P(H>ULATION AND PROGRESS.
Imagioe a north and south line anil two east and wesit lines to be
drawn acroas the United States, dividing it roughly into quarters as in
. the map below. Which quarter has the densest population t Which
quarter ranks neit in density of population I What part is verj- thinly
peopled T With what climatic regrion does the (hinly settled ree^on
nearly correspond T (p. 54.) With what great physical region T
Population. The eastern half of the United States cou-
taina uearly niue teuths of the people iu the couutry. At
the close of the Revolutionary War there were about four
million people in the United States. In what part of the
countiy did most of them livef What is the population
now f (p. 157 ) Over what part of the country has it
spread? Such a rapid increase and spread of population
has never before been known in the history of the world.
It has been caused by the millions of people, who, at-
tracted by our cheap and fertile lands and the great op-
portunities for success in life under our free government,
have left their homes in Europe and come to settle
in the United States, as thousands still do every
year.
People have come from all countries, but mostly
from Great Britain, Ireland, Gennany, and the
Scandinavian countries. Whatever their nationality,
however, they soon adopt our language, manners,
and customs, and become thorough Americans.
Moat of the European immigrants have landed on our northeast
coast, and have moved inland to seek new homes. Hence the
northeastern quarter of the country is not only most densely settled,
but has the largest foreign population.
Few immigrants land iu the southeastern quarter, and most of
the people in that region were bom in this country. Hence there
are few foreigners in that quarter; but there are about as many
negroes there as foreigners further north.
What races inhabit the thinly settled region! (p. 49.) There
are many more whites than Indiana, and most of them wera bom
in the United States.
On the Pacific coast there is a large foreign population. They
are mainly Europeans who have crossed the country from the east
eoiast; but about one fourth of the foreigners are Chinese. To
That race do they belong t
Progress. No other highly civilized nation occupies so
large a continuous territory as the United States, or is so
well fitted for the successful pursuit of so many branches
of human industry. Nowhere else in the world is there so
vast a number of highly civilized and energetic people
living under a single government, speaking the same lan-
guage, and having the same general customs and standards
of life.
Because of these advantages, industries of all kinds have
increased in this country even more rapidly than the pop-
ulation, so that to-day the United States, though one of
t)ie youngest, is oue of the greatest nations in the world.
Not only is the total product of all the seven chief indus-
tries pursued by man greater in this couuti-y than in any
other, but the product of each of these industries is
greater than in any other nation. Make a list of the
seven great industries of man.
By most of these industries the people in the United
States produce some articles in such large quantities that
there is suflScient to supply the wants of our own gi'eat
population and to leave a surplus for export to other
countries where the article is needed. Thus the people of
nearly every country in the world have come to rely upon
the workmen of the United States for some of the neces-
saries of life.
Supplemental Work. Make enlarged oopies of the maps opposite
)). 64 and the diagram opposite p. 124 in Oannctt's "Building of a
Nation," for your schoolroom walL Read or recite " The Axe of the
Settler," by Jlary E. Hewitt, or "The Pioneer," by Lowell. Read
chapters 1, 4, and 15 in " Children's Stories of American Progreia," 1^
Ilenrietta Christian Wright
PRODUCTIOir.
Agriculture. More of our people are engaged in farm-
ing than in any other occupation. What parts of the
country are best adapted for farming t (p. 54.) Why!
Inunlgranta landing at Hew York city.
PABTS OF THE EARTH.
COTTON REGION
One of our most iraporlant crops Is a>(/on.
For what is cotton used T Cotton is our
chief export. What part of the world's
crop is grown in this coimtrj'T Cotlon re-
quires a warm, moist climate, tn wlm( part
of the United States is there suchacliinattjl
The shaded portion of the above map
shows where cotton is grown. Wliich quar-
ter of the country embrncea most of the
cotton-growing region T There are other important crops and other
industries in this region, but the cotton crop ia the most valuable product
'fima:
WNITEO STATES- BESTOFWOBL
The woild'a cotton crop.
As much tabaoeo is lused in the United
States as in all the rret of the world to-
gether, and of this crop there is a large
surplus for export The chief tobacco-
growing regions are shaded on the aboTe
map, three quarters of the crop bnng
raised in the regions of darker shading.
Herding. About half of the hogs aud one fourth of the
cattle iu the world are raised in the United States, and
I.QQQ
U.S.- REST OF WORLD
Tha world's wheat crop.
Whtat and corn are our most valuable food
crops. For what is wheat used t What part
of the world's wheat crop do we produce)
Wo export great quantities of this grain
every year. Wheat and com require less
heat and moisture than cotton. The shaded
portions of the above map show the great
wheat-growing regions of the United States. In which quart«r of the
country is most of the wheat grown T Al-
though the greater part of the wheat is
grown iu the northeastern quarter, much is
also raised in the fertile valleys near the
Pacific coast Com is our largest crop.
What part of the com crop of the world do
ve raise 1 Com grows in nearly all parts of
the eastern United States, but most of it
in the southern half of the wheat repon,
Hncb corn is used by people in this country for food, and much is exported
for that purpose, but by far the greater part is used here to fatten hogs.
Many other food crops are raised in the United States, but chiefly in
the northeastern quarter, which is thus, except in the extreme northeast,
tlie great food-producing section of the country.
REST
WORLD
The world's com crop.
JITED STATES-,
UN/TED STATES -REST OF WORLD
The world's product of cattle sod hogs.
from tliera is obtained so large a surplus of pork aud
beef that, after cotton, meat is our greatest export.
Horses and sheep are raised in greater numbei-s than iu
most eouutrit's, but scarcely in excess of our own wants.
Where is the great com-groving bcltt The greatest number of h<^
are raised in that belt. Whyf Cattle are raised chiefly in the same
region and westward over the Great Plains, where there is sufficient
moisture for coarso pasturage. Most of the horses are reared on the
richer pastures of the Prairie plains. Where are theyt What fiber is
obtained from sheep 1 Fleeces grow thickest and best in a rather cool
climate, hence the great sheep ranges are in the northern part of the
Appalachian region, on the uplands of the Lake plains, in tiie veslen
highlands, and on the Pacific coast
Fishing. The product of the fisheries of the world is
of less value than that of the other great industries, but
more fish are caught by people from the tJuited States
than by any other people. "What __-*-^
part of thfl catch of the ■workl is >i^^,-^^^ ^^^
obtuiiR'd by our fishermen ! ^"^^^7 ^^f~^^
Oy»:ters and codfish from the northeast FlsberiM of tlie wortd.
coast and sulmon from the northwest coast
. . are the m<ist important products. The«a
££ii_f ^=-M>^f =9»inJ / are exportt.'d in considerable quantities, bnt
w- / p f r the total amount is not lai^ in comparison
>A m 'Sv / / »S\ / / 'with our great exports.
U.S. - RESTOFWORLD
Lnmbeting of the wwld.
Lumbering. Fully one third of
the timber cut in the world each
year comes from the forests of the
UNITED STATES.
59
United States. Iiitleeil, lumln'riiig in earned on so exti'u-
sively aiul rcokle.ssIy iii this ooiiiitiy that in n tVw years
our l>est forests will lio destroyoil unlo.ss t'uttintr is more
carefully i-egulatod. Ijuniber, in tlio shape of l()f!:s, beams,
boards, ami shinglefi, forms one of our importaitt uxjiovts.
In what two parts of the country do tiiu Inrf^st fon'sta oceiirt Wliy
are forcBts f(niii<l in these reinons rather tliau in thf olliers T Wliprc nro
the heavily forested regions T What kiudd of valuable woods prevail in
each region t
Mining. The mines of the Uniteil States are among its
most valuable resources, and yield about one third of tho
mineral j)roduet of the world. By far tlio most valuablo
of the mineral pfodiictious arc coal andiron; then follow
ill value petroleum, gold, eopjior, and silver. Tho yield of
eaeh of tliose is enormous. Tho petroleum and coiiper
amount to more than lialf of tlie world's supply, and these
two minerals, together with coal, are important articles of
export.
Which qnarter of tho country containti the preatcr part of the three
Ittrgest coal fields T Three fourths of our coal is mine<l in the large east-
More than nine tenths of the pftrvlettm occurs near the northwestern
part of the great eastern coal field and westward nearly to tho great
middle coal field.
Gold and iiher are mined chiefly in the
Rocky JMountoins and the Sierra Nevada,
wliilo by far the greater part of the copper
comes from two small clusters of mines,
one near tho south shore of Luke Kuperinr
and the other near the source of the Mis-
J.S -REST OF WORLD
The world's output of
gold and silver.
Manufacturing. Not only is the United States the gi-eat-
est ma nnt'uo luring country, hut in the extent and variety
of mainifaetures it snrtmsses auy
two other countries in the world.
Nearly every kind of manufactured
artii'le wanted by civilized man is .
made somewhere in our couutty,
aii(i nearly always it is maile more
cheaply here than anywhere else, for in uo other country
is there so much labor-saving machinery used as in the
United States.
The ten gi'eatest manufactures of our country ai-e :
1. Flour and corn iiionl. 6. Lumber.
2. Cotton and woolen cloth. 7. Clothing.
3. I'ankeJ meats (beef and pork). 8. Liquors.
4. Iriin and titei't goods. 9. Shoes and leather floods.
5. Machiut-ry. 10. Books and newspapers.
Nearly all <,if these, and many other manufactured
goods, are important articles of export — particularly
meats, tii>ur, and iron and steel goods.
em field and in tho small detached flelil*
northeast of it, and most of ihu
3 from tho Lir^ middle and western
U.b - RESTOF WGPL) fields.
The world's output of coal. j^,, „„ is found in nearly everj- state,
but about two thirds of our product is mincKl
near the south and west shores of Lake
Buperior,andmostof therost isfoundin the U.S.-RE5T OF WORLD
eroded rock folds of the Appalachian ridges. Thewgild'iontpntof inmore.
. /\/\/\
Vou have learned that mo:jt of the munufiicturiug of the world is car-
ried on in cities anil to\vns. On thi.i map tho cities and towns of the
United States are sliown by dots, tho lai^er dots standing for the larger
mantifacturiiif; ci'nti>rs. In which quarter of the United States is most
of tho nianufflcturiiig carried onT Why do you think sol Alwut nine
tenths of our maniifActuring is dono in that quarter of the ciiuutiy.
Compare tliis map with that of tlio coal reiriim. Mention one advantage
which that quarter of the countrj- has for manufacturing. Where is
most of our iron ore minc<lT To smelt the iron from tho ore, much fn«l
is necessary, and as the ore can be transported cheaply by water, the
rcf^ons where tlio great coal fields approach tho Great Lakes have
become tho most important centers of the iron and steel industry.
Wliyl Tho mnnufnctiiro of flour, meat, tho liquors which aro made
from grain, and lumber ia also carried on chiefly west of thi! Ajipa-
lachian Mountains. Whyl What are the other great manufactures t
They are made chiefly east of the mountains.
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
Supplemental Work. Read chapters 3, 4, and 5 in Camegiu's " Tri-
nmphant Democraoy." Make an enlarged copy of the plates opi>osito
pp. IW and 170 in Oannett's " Bailding of a Nation," for the aobool-
room wall.
COMMERCE AND WEALTH.
Commerce. The coUectiou of raw nmterials from the
various parts of the United States at the points of iiiauii-
faeture or export, t!ie distributioo of the manufaf'turod
products to the places where they are to bo used or ex-
ported, and the importation and distribution of
supply T Hon- doea tht- dixtribution of railroads compare with the
distribution of populntion T {map, p. 57.) How do the Appalachian
Mountains affeot the distribution of railroadst How do the Ozark
Monntains I Du you think that these mountains have b«en hindiancn
to the carrying trade 1 In which ([narter of the United States do yon
think the industry of commerce is greatestt Whyl
Wealth. Tlio vahiG of the farms, houses, railways, and
other iniprovenient.s in the United States, together with
th(^ iieennmlation from all our industries, constitutes an
amount of wealth much gi-eater than that of any other
nation.
Europe contains a greater number of highly civilized [leople than any
other ^n-and division. How does the population of our countrj- com-
piirc witli ihut of Europe 1 (p. 157.) How does the wealth of the United
not produced in the country, give rise to a commerce
greater than that of any two other nations in the world.
Although our foreign commerco (exports and imports)
is exceeded by that of only one other country, it forms but
one tenth of our total commerco. Make a list of our chief
exports. The greatest of our imports are sugar, from tlie
West Indies, and coffee, from South America. Other
leading imports are :
1. Cloth — woolen, silk, and cotton. 4. Rawfibers — flax, wool, and silk.
2. Iron and steel goods. 5. Hides and leatlicr.
3. Drugs and chemicals. G. Raw India rubber.
Fully three fourths of the merchandise whicli enters into the com-
merce of this country is transported by raihroad, and but oue fourth by
LL OF EUROPE
e population of the United States and Europe.
States compare with that of the whole of Entopel <p. 159.) The
wealth of the United States', if equally divided, would yield to every
man, woman, and child in the country J1246 ; while the wealth of Europe
would j-ield to every person in that grand diviuon only abont <683.
Hence, in proportion to its population, this country is about twice a*
vrcaltby as Europe.
■• BY R»iuno*DS
Ucthods of commercial transportatioi
boats on the oceans and lakes which border the country, or on the rivers
and canals which traverse it. Id what waters does most of tho trans-
portation by boats take place 1 Nearly half of the world's length of
U.S.
ALL OF EUROPE
Comparative wealth of the United Statee and Europe.
(^&
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BAILKOADS
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railroad is in the United States. Which quarter of the country is most
completely supplied with railroads T Which quarter haa the next greatest
Earnings. Not only tlie accumulated wealth but the
daily earnings in this country are far greater than in any
other nation. Tliis is duo pvineipally to the fact that we
use labor-saving maehineiy in all tho great industries to
a greater extent tiiau any other people. Therefore, one
man in tliis country can produce as many things in a
given time as several men can produce in any other coun-
try. Since a man can produce more, wages are higher
here than elsewhere, and tho earnings of the people are
very gi'Cat.
A liitlc' less thiin half (forty-flve per cent) of the people of the Unil.d
States ciLrn money. If the total earnings in our conntrj- were di-
vided e<jHally amoiif; th<' money-earners, each one would receive $1.50
for eju'ii wi.'tk day in the year ; while an eipial division of the earn-
ings of EuroiKi would yield but sixly-si'vi^n cents a day to the money-
earners of that ^ranil division. It is this ^rrcal difference in the earning
l)ower <if int'n in the two retrions th.it liiis cnii»«d so larf^e and rapid an
etiii)rnitioii uf people from Europe into the United States.
Supplemental Work, Fn)m tlio tnbli-s ou pp. 157, 159, prove thd
till! lifTurns piven for the nvcrnpe wfalih and earnings here and in
Europe are correct. If each money -earner in your family received an
equal share of tlit! earnings of the country, what would the income of
the family i.cJ Read ehapters 5, 10, and 12 in "Children's Stories of
Anierican Progress." Rend " Travels in America One Hundred Tean
Ago," by Thomas Twining. Road sections 280 to 28S and chaptw 22 of
MoMaater's " School History of the United States."
CKITED STATES.
61
COHHERCIAL AHD INDUSTRIAL SUBDIVISIONS.
Review the lesson on lonf^tade (p. 7) uid stody the Bapplemental
Tork foUowin^ it. In about what lon^^tode is f^iUdelphia, in Pennsyl-
TKoia T St. Louis, in Misaonri t Denver, in Colorado T San Franiufloo,
on the Paoifio coast T When the rotation of the earth brings the meridian
of Philadelphia exactly beneath the son, what time is it at Pbiladdphia T
How long must the earth then rotate before the meridian of St. Louis is
brought exactly beneath the suu f How long before the meridian of San
Francisco is brought to that position T When it is noon at Pbiladetphia
what time is it at St. Louis ; at Denver; at San Francisco 1
Standard Time Belts. Tlie raain body of our coun-
try is so broad from east to west thnt nioi-c than tliree
hours are required for rotation to carry it past the sun.
Hence, if we are told that a raib'oad train starts " at noon,"
we cannot be sure of its time of starting, because it is
noon at different places in our countrj* for more than three
hours after that time occurs on the Atlantic coast.
To avoid mistakes, delays, and confusion, tlio railroad
companies of the country have adopted tlie times of the
meridians of 75°, 90°, 105° and 120°, as the standards by
which to run their trains. Tims, on most of our Atlantic
coast the standard time of all the railroads is that of the
meridian of 75° and is called " Eastern time " ; thi-oughout
most of the Mississippi valley the standard is that of the
meridian of 90°, and is called "Central time"; in the Rocky
Mountain region the time of the meridian of 105° is stand-
ard for the railroads and is called " Mountain time " ; and
on the Pacific coast the standard is the time of the merid-
ian of 120° and ia called " Pacific time."
westward, each traveling' jnat as fast as the earth rotates. The maa
who goes west aa fast as, the earth turns east keeps exactly beneath
the sun all the time, and it seems to him to be still Uonday noon when
he reaches his starting point again twenty-fotir hours later. He has lo»t
a day in his reckoning by traveling westward around the earth.
The other man travels eastward over the earth as fast as the earth
itself tarns eastward, and therefore he moves away from the sou twice
as fast as the prime meridian does. After twelve hours' travel he reaches
the meridian of 180°, but twelve hours' rotation has carried this meridian
beneath the sun, and eo the traveler reaches it at noon. In twenty-foor
hours the man reaches his starting point on the prime meridian, but
twonty-four bouTH' rotation has brought this meridian beneath the sun
again, so the traveler reaches it on the second noon after his start; he
therefore supposes it to be Wednesday noon, though realty it is but
twenty-four hours after Monday noon. Ho has gmntd a day in bis reck-
oning by traveling eastward around the earth. To correct such errors
in tlieir diites, navigators usually add a day to their reckoning when they
sail westward across the meridian of ISO", and subtract a day when they
cross it to the eastward, and for this reason the meridian of 180° is some-
times called the Intematiaiuil dale line.
Industrial Sections. We liave seen that, owing largely
to differences in surface stni.eture, climate, and soil, the
What b the difFerenoe in time between each two of these " standard "
meridians 1 When it is noon by standard time iu the Central time belt,
what time b it in the Mountain belt; in the Eastern belt; in the
Pacific beltl Thus, if a traveler's wat^h marks railroad time in one part
of the country, he can ea«ly tell from it the correct railroad time in any
other part by adding or subtracting the proper number of fall boars.
Bach railroad company euita its own convenience as to the point on its
line where a change of standard time is mode. It is usually at some
station trhere the locomotives and train men are changed ; and as such
stations on different roads are seldom on the same meridian, the edges
of the time belts are irregular. In the extreme southwest, Mountain time
is not used, but a change b made from Central time directly to Pacific
time. What b the amount of thb change! At what dty b it made t
bitematioiial Date Line. Suppose that two men, starting from the
prime meridian on Monday noon, travel the one eastward and the other
raOUSTRIAI.
3^#
1 ''^LC^i^^-^
u T H E a- N-ja E C T ( y'
great productions of our country are (Confined more or less
definitely to different regions. Hence the United States
may be naturally separated into (1) the Northeastern, or
cloth-manufacturing section; (2) the Northern, or food-,
iron-, and coal-producing, and manufacturing section ; (3)
the Southern, or cotton-producing section ; (4) the Plateau,
or grazing and gold- and silver-mining section ; and (5) the
Pacific, or Western food- and gold-producing section.
TOPICS OH KESOURCBS AlfD PEOPLE.
I. People. Races: Indians— nnmber,location; negroes — origin,
location, number; native whites — ancestors, dbtribution; white immi-
grants ^attraction, origin, landing place, dbtribution. Population;
amount ; increase ; dbtribution. Government : origin ; Federal ; state ;
territorial. Wealth: amount; reasons for; average earnings.
II, Adtahtaoes. Soil: aUuvial; glacial. Climate: heatrepons —
northern, central, southern, western ; extremea of temperature ; length
of winters ; rainfall rt-giona ; influence of storms. Manufacturing facili-
ties: streams; minerals. Transportation facilities: railroads; rivers.
III, Prot>Octs. Food : vegetable — region, amount, kinda ; animal
— kinds, regions, amount ; manufactures. Fibers: vegetable; animal;
manufactures from. Timber: regions; kinds; amount; danger. Min-
erals: regions; kinda; amounts.
IV. BxpottTs. Hatnral products: chief; second; other. Mann-
factored producta.
\ NOKTUEASTERN SECTTOX [
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«tU«^ni.^ofUu,Uo.«d««-
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P^ H
UNITED STATES.
63
THE NORTHEASTERN SECTION.
Which BlAtoa compose this Bectionl What lar^ river basin is north
of the Northeastern Section T What waters are south and eastT In what
latitude is the central part of this section I How does ihe tlistauce of
the section from the equator compare with its distance from tho north
pole T What highland region is in these states T Locate the Green Moun-
tains; the Berkshire Hills; the Wliite Mountains; Mount Katnhdiu.
Locate the chief lakes. How were the lakes moslly formed T Name Ihe
chief rivers, and locate their sources, courses, and mouths. Wliat facili-
ties do they afford for manufacturing! Name Ihii states of the group
in the order of their size.
The six states in the extreme iioithenRteni part of
our country are often called New Kiiglaiid. They oc-
cupy a region less suitable for iigriculturo flinn is
any other portion of the eastern lowlands. The larger
river valleys of tlie section arc fertile, but over most of
the uplands the soil is thin and unproductive, and is cov-
ered with glacial bowlders. Hay, apples, and potatoes
are raised in tho valleys, and market gardening and
dairying are carried on; but not nearly enough food
is raised to supply tho wants of the people, and tho section
is supplied with grain and meat from tho West. In the
northern part are extensive forests.
The chief occupation is manufacturing. "Wliy are wa-
terfalls specially numerous in this region f (p. 50.) Since
in this section the hard rocks of the Piedmont region
extend to the seaeoast, many of the falls and rapids
afford water power for manufacturing near good harbors,
where raw materials may be received, and the manufac-
tured goods shipped. The greater part of the manufac-
tm-ing, however, is now done Ijy steam power, most of
the coal, for fuel, being brought by sea from the ports
of Chesapeake and Delaware bays.
Because there are few mines of coal or iron in the section, the articles
manufactured are those whose value depends upon tho ingenuity and
Ane workmanship displayed in making them, rather than upon the
amount of fuel and raw material used. The chief manufactures are
cotton aud woolen goods and boots and shoes, of which this section pro-
duces more than all the rest of the country. Other characteristic manu-
factures are paper, light hardware, fine machinery, clothing, jewelry,
and rubber goods.
New England, especially the southern half, is thickly
covered with a network of railways, wliich cotniects it
with the south and west, and also with the railway sys-
tems of Canada. The glacier-carved fiords and bays of
the New England coast contain many fine harbors, from
which vessels carry on an active coast or fishing trade;
and Boston maintains a large foreign commei'ce.
About half the granite and marble, and much of the
slate, used in the country are quarried in New England.
New England contains the most densely peopled part of
the Unite'l States. How does this section compare with
the rest of tho eountiy in the distribution of cities and
towns f (p. 50.) More than half the people live in cities.
These states have a well-educated and energetic popula-
tion, and fine school systems. They contain several of
tho oldest and most noted colleges lu the country.
The population of the beautiful mountain and lake regions of this
section, as well as that along the seaeoast of nearly the whole of New
Englaiid, is much more than doubled during the aummer months by the
thousaods of people who, at that season, leave their regular occupations
in the crowded cities of the eastern part of the Union for a period of
rest and recreation. The care of the " summer boarders " is an important
occui>ation throughout these regions.
Bar Harboi, Mt. Desert Island,
The beach at Newport, K. I.
MAINE. What natural boundaries has Mainef By what political
divisions is it bordered I How does it compare with the vest of New
England in sizeT Turn to the map of the United States (p. 56) and
compare it with New York in size; with Texas. Describe its surface; its
rivers ; its coast. Name and locate the capital and the five chief cities.
About one half of the surface of Maine is covered with
forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, and birch, wliich supply
lumber and material for wood jiulp used to make paper.
Hay, oats, potatoes, and apples are the most important farm
pi-oducts. Maine is one of the foremost granite-producing
states, and yields much slate. The fiords of the rocky
coast form good harbors. Along the shore, herriug, sar-
dines (p. 39), and cod are caught, and there are many
sardine- packing and lierring-.snioking establishmeut.s.
Portland, tho chief seaport and most important city, is
the terminus of tlie principal railway system of eastern
Canada. It has an important foreign commerce when the
St. Lawrence is frozen. The harbor is among the largest
and finest in the country. Boots and shoes are manufae-
64
tui-ed, and much ice and fish are exported. Lew-
iston manufactures cotton and woolen goods,
"What city is just opposite f Auburn has large
boot and shoe factories. Bangor, at the liead of
navigation on the Penobscot, is one of the great
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
lumber depots of the country. Bid-
deford has large cotton mills, Au-
gusta, the capital, manufactures
cotton goods and shoes. Bath is
the shipbuilding center.
NEW HAMPSHHIE. WTiat natural
boundnries bas New Hampshirf t Wtial
political bmiutiarit's ? How Joes it com-
pare with Maine is size t What two rivers
drain the larger part o£ itt What moun-
tain group is in the north T Name the chief peak. Name and locati
the largest lake; the capital; the seaport; three other cities.
Because of its beautiful mountain scenery New Hamp-
shire has been called the " Switzerland of America." The
forests and the granite quarries give rise to important in-
dustries. The state ranks third in the country in cotton
manufacture. This is centered chiefly at Manchester and
Nashua, which are located at falls on the Menimac. Con-
cord, the capital, also has cloth mills, wagon and carriage
factories, and fine granite quarries. The fine water power
at Dover is utilized by large cotton and woolen mills.
VERMONT. What lake and river form nearly half the boundan,- of
Vermont? What states and country border it f Compare Vermont with
New Hampshire in shape; in size; in surface. Has Vcnuont a seaport?
Why? Draw the main divide of the state. Name and locate the mountains
of Vermont ; the capital ; the five chief cities and towns.
Vermont means "Green Mountain." The rounded sum-
mits of this mountain range are covered with forests of
evergreen pines and spruces. There are matiy fine daiiy
farms and sheep ranges. Much hay is produced, and fine
breeds of live stock are kept. Lumber is obtained from
the forests, and more maple sugar is produced than in any
other state. Over two thirds of the marble quan-ied in the
United States, aud much granite and slate, come from
Vennont. Less cotton goods are made than in the other New England
states. Whyf Lumber, woolens, musical instruments, and scales are
manufactured. There is considerable trade with Canada through
Lake Champlain.
Burlington, the chief city, has a fine harbor and is an important
lumber market. Near liutltwd there are extensive marble quaixies;
St. AUniiis is a ,Tnt..T for diiiry products; in Brattleboro organs are
tuade; iind L'lirrc has fine granite quarries,
MASSACHUSETTS. By what states and waters is Massachusetts surrounded t
the map of the United States aiid coiiipare with Sew Jersey in size ; with
York ; with Texas. Describe its coast ; its surface. Name and locate its monn-
; capes; bays; islands. Name and locale its capital; four other sea-
ris : three cities on the Merrimao ; two on the Counecticut ; three other lar^ cities.
Massachusetts, although one of the smallest, is one of the wealth-
-t and mn.st thickly settled states of the Union. Manufacture and
liny industries. In this state are manufactured
half of the boots and shoes and a
very large part of the cotton and
wooton cloth and of the paper made
in the United States. The oom-
merce, both foreign and domestic,
is very large. Many vessels enter
tlie harbors, and the eastern part
of the state is thickly intersected
by railroads from the north, the
west, and the south.
Massachusetts is foremost amoag
the states of the Union in the quar-
rj'ing of granite and in the value
of cod fii^heries.
Boston owes its growth and im-
portance chiefly to the great size,
depth, and excellence of its beautiful island-studded har-
bor at the head of Mnssac-husetts Bay. It has become
the groat commercial center for nearly the whole of New
England, receiving and distributing throughout the sec-
tion raw materials, — wool, cotton, hides, leather, rubber,
and coal, — and receiving in return manufactured goods
for <listribntion l>y sea or by railroad.
paper mill, Holyoke, Mass.
UNITED STATES.
Though not particularly noted for the characteristic
manufactures of the section, — cloth and bootaand shoes, —
Boston is one of the gi-eat manufa*;turing centers of the
United States ; the making of clothing and fine machinery
and the printing of books are leading industries.
CONNECTICUT. By wh&t states and waters is Connectieut sur-
rounded 1 Describe its surface; drainage; coast. Name and locate its
capital ; its chief cities.
Much tobacco is grown in the Connecticut valley ; and
in the western and southern parts of the state dairying
Boston is among the oldust of the
great cities of the couutry, liaviiitrbeon
fouQiied by the PuritJins iu WM on a
11 peuinsula between the estuary of
the Cliarles River and the harbor.
The peninsula contained tiree low
hills, from which it got the
' (or Ti-emont).
e hilLi iiad the inalnlaad
which were flooded by tin
tides, so tliitt at higii wiiter the penin-
A shoe factory, Lynn, Moss.
sula was connected with the mainland only
by a long, narrow "neck" of land. On the
highest of the hills was built the Statehouse,
which commands a fine view over tlie city
and harbor. The people long since widened
the neck by filling up the marshes, so that
it no longer resembles an isthmus.
The newly made land and muoh of the
mainland over which the city has spread
have become fine residential quarters, whUe
most of the old peninsula is given tip to bu^ness. On the east front,
where the water is deep, are the great docks where foreign commerce b
carried on} the estuary of the Charles, to the north, is osed more for
the coast trade. Nearly the whole railroad system of the section also
radiates from this city.
Because of the fine sohoob, colleges, and libraries there, and the
great number of anthers, musicians, and arllBts who have lived in or
near tiie city, Hie citizens often call Boston the " Athens of America."
Worcester is a great railroad center, and is noted for the
manufacture of machinery, shoes, and wire. At Cambridge
is located Harvard University, the oldest and one of the
largest in the country. Fall River, Lowell, and New Bed-
ford are the great centers of cotton manufacture ; Law-
rence, of both cotton and wool; Lynn, Brockton, and
Haverhill make millions of boots and shoes j and at
Springfield is a United States arsenal, where firearms are
made. Holyohe has large paper mills. Gloucester is a
great fishing port. Salem has large tanneries.
and the raising of vegetables and seeds
iiilM:.rtaiit industries. In Long Is-
.Soiiiid many oysters are dredged.
Tho state has valuable sandstone
<iuiivries and is especially noted for
tlie variety of its manufactures.
Besides cotton and woolen goods, olmost
kind of fine cutlery snd hardware, in-
tools and machinery, needles, pins,
and eyes, clocks, ftreanus. bicycles, sew-
and all kinds of brass and plated
I, come from the factories of this state.
New Haven is the largest city and
li^'f port. It is the seat of Yale
iiivi'fsity, one of the most famous in
the country. Hartford
is the headquarters of
many insurance com-
panies, and is noted for
firearms, bicycles, and
I'ubber goods. Bridge-
port manufactures car-
riages and sewing ma-
chines; WaterlMry,hv&s&
work, clocks, and pins;
and Meriden, silver and
plated ware. New Brit-
ain makes locks and
builders' hardware.
RHODE ISLAND. De-
scribe the position of Rhode
Island ; its drainage. Turn
to the map of the United
States and compare its size
with that of Delaware; with
that of Texas. Name a bay, a cape, and a river of this state; ita
capitals ; two other cities.
Rhode Island is the smallest and most densely populated
of all the states, and in proportion to its size has more
manufacturing than any other.
Providence, the second city in New England, contains
the liirgest cotton factory in the world, and exceeds all
otlier cities in this country in tlie manufacture of jewelry.
It also has many woolen mills. Pawtucket and Woonsocket
also are centers of cotton and woolen manufacture. New-
port is a famous summer resort.
Supplemental Work. Tell one anecdote of Eevolulionary times in
New England. Read "A New England Girlhood," by Lucy Larcom, or
" A New England Boyhood," by E, E. Hale. Read or recite one selec-
tion from Vols. 25 and 26 of " Poems of Places," edited by Longfellow,
Describe as fully as Boston is described one other city or place in New
England. Write next day what you remember of the description given
by one of your achoolmates.
Spinnmg in a cotton miU, Fall River, Uasa.
PAKTS OF THE EARTH,
THE NORTHERN SECTION.
Which states of this seefion are cro.'^scii liy tln> Appalachian Moun-
tains! Which state lies wholly in the Atlantic plain? Which stiiti'S
tic hetwecD the A|ipalaohiuii Muuntain4 aod the MisHiiii'iiipi Itiverf
Wliii'h i^latoB lie mostly in the Lake plains t Whicli Iw looslly iu thi;
I'lairic plains t Wliich lie partly m the Ori-at Plains* Wiich (juart.T
of the United States embraces most of the Northern Seotiont
Although snow lies on the ground in winter for a month
or more througliout tin.' greater part of tliis st-c-tion, and
the v.'niters in the northwest are long and eold, tiie suniniei-s
in nearly all parts are warm enough, and have sufficient
niiiifaH, for the most nsfl'iil ;rniins f n {^row and ripen. Es-
cp]it in the Appidiichijiii Muuntiiiiis, tlie fiurfa<.-e is generally
fiinooth and Ihit, and tht' snil nearly everywhere is deep
!iinl fertili', the old Liuirentian jrhicier having deposited
detritus in tliis section instead of Iiaviug scrape<l it off
into the sea, as in New England.
Because of tliese iidvantages, agrieulture is the most
important indn;>try, and hei-ause of tlie use of improved
agricultural implements, l>y whieli one man here produces
as much as four or five men in any foreign country, tins has
become the greatest food-i>roducing re^on of the world.
CKITED STATES.
In every state <>f the section, and cspei-ially in tiio
states of tlie Pmirii^ jilaiiis and the Lake j'lains, the cliief
food erops for man and beast — wheat, eorn, oats, hay, and
potatoes — are raiseil in enormous quantities, so tliat about
five sixths of our country's yield of all tliese articles eonies
from these states. Otlier food crops of lesser importance
ai-e grown, as well as the bulk of the tobacco crop of the
United States.
Domestic animals are largely dependent upon the crops
for food, and hence most of the hogs, rattle, and butter
and eggs produced iu the country come from this section.
Ou the Atlantic coast of the section occur the greatest
oysler fisheries of the United States.
Where are the most heavily forested parts of the sec-
tion? (mail, V- 59.) In all these regions lumbering is an
important in<lustry. The piuo belt of the Great Lakes is
one of tlio gi'eatest timber-producing regions of the Union.
Where are the largest coal fieMs of the country 1 (p. 59.)
Wliere is the principal petroleum region T Whore is most
of the iron ore of the country [irotlucedf In what part
of this section are there rich copper mines T There ai-e
valuable lead and zinc deposits west of the Ozark Moun-
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
tains. In all these regions mining is an ex-
tensive industry.
Mention the important food crops and
two very important meat products for which
this section is noted; two other important
raw vegetable materials} the most impor-
tant mineral products.
From the city map on p. 59 locate the
great manufacturiag region of the United
States. What part of this section does it
embrace f In the Northern Section the man-
ufacture of the raw materials produced in
the section — food, lumber, and iron and
steel — forms the bulk of the mauufactuniig
industry.
Throufclioiit the grain' and meat-producing rejrion!'
of the central part of the section, flour milling and
the packing and curing of meat are characteristic io-
duatries. In the region bordering the Great Lakes
and on the Alleghany plateaus are the great sawmills
of the eoontry, while the iron and steel industries are
centered at points where coal and iron ore, with lime-
stone for flux, can be most cheaply brought together.
The mannf aoture of tobacco is also very important
in this region, especially in the southern and south-
eastern parts. Kast of the Appalachian Mountains the manufactures are
more varied and, like those of New England, consume much raw ma-
terial not produced in the section. Why 1 The weaving of cotton, wool,
and silk, and the refining of sugar, are extensive industries of this kind.
What three bays indent the east coast of tliis section T
How were they formed I They are all deep enough for
the largest vessels, and contain the best harbors on our
Atlantic coast south of New England. Wliat river
flows into New York Bay f What one flows into Delaware
Bayt Name the two largest that flow into Chesapeake
Bay. These four rivers rise west of the Appalachian
ridges and cross the ridges in a series of deep water
gaps, while south of the Potomac River, Blue Ridge rises
as an almost continuous wall between the coast and the
Mississippi valley. Turn to the railroad map (p. 60) and
tell what effect this peculiar Appalachian drainage has
had upon the raihroad system of the country. Thus the
seaports on the three bays of this section are among the
Ifiagara Falls.
liie Site Canal at Xrockpoit,
largest cities of the country,
and through them by far the
greater part of our foreign
oonimeree passes. Why 1
West of the Appalachian
Mountains the smooth sur-
face of the section is covered
with a perfect network of
railroads, by which raw ma-
terials are collected at manu-
facturing centers and the
manufactured products are
distributed. The Great Lakes
are all connected by nari-
gable straits or canals, and,
because transportation is
cheaper by water than by rail,
they form a commercial route
of great importance.
The natural channel between lakes
Erie and Ontario is Niagara River,
which in its course plunges over a
precipice about IGO feet high, form-
ing Niagara Falls — one of the grand-
est cataracts in the world. As the falls interrupt the navigation of the
river, the Wclland Canal has been constructed between the lakes,
through Canada. Canals have also been constructed in Canada around
the nipids of the St, Lawrence River to tidewater at Montreal. But the
mouth of the St. Lawrence is so far north that it is closed by ice many
months in wiotcr, and besides is in Canada. Advaotage has been taken
of the water gaps and the low valley of the Hudson to construct the
Erie Canal from that river to Lake Erie, thus securing a moet important
water route through our own country from the Great Lakes to tidewater.
The Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri rivers are navi-
gable for gi-eat distances, and many of their larger tribu-
taries for shorter distances, and are much used for
transporting coal, lumber, and other bulky freight. Sev-
eral canals have been constructed through the low divide
to connect the Gi'eat Lakes with the Mississippi systeoL
The Northern Section contains about two thirds of all
the people in the United States, and nearly three fourths
of all the foreign immigrants in the country.
The Northern Appalachian States. The seven states
of this section which are crossed by the Appalachian i-e-
gion or the Atlantic plain are sometimes called the "Mid-
dle States." A very large part of our coal and petroleum,
and much iron ore, come from this region. Manufactur-
ing and the production of food crops are more important
in the northern part, while the production of oysters and
tobacco are of great importance in the southern.
HEW YORK. What states and country border New York t What
three lakes form part of the boundary 1 What river system drains
the northern partt Trace its divide across the state. To what great
river system does the southwestern part drain T In what slope is the
southeastern Imlf of the state 1 Name and locate the mountains of New
York; the islands; the lakes. By what river are the Finger Lakes
drained into Lake Ontario t ^\'hat is the chief tributary of the Had-
sonl Name and locate the capital ; the chief city ; the chief lake port;
a city on the Geneeee Biver; three other large oitieB.
70
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
j Aa oil well, PennsylvanU.
Locomotive works, Philadelpbia.
PENNSYLVANIA. What states border
Pennsylvania t Describe its surface. Trace
across the srtate the prineipal divide. What
two large rivers are on the eastern slope ;
on the western t Into what docs each
flowt Locate the capital; the chief city;
two other important cities of the eastern
slope ; three oF the western.
Pennsylvania ranks first among
the states in the production of coal
and petroleum, and second in popu-
lation and the value of manufac-
tures. Bituminous coal is found
in the Alleghany plateaus, and an-
thracite coal in the rock folds of the ridges in the north-
eastern part of the state. Petroleum is obtained in the
Allegheny and Monongahela valleys.
The characteristic manufactures of the state, par-
ticularly of the western part, are iron and steel, which
require much fuel. In this industry Pennsylvania ex-
ceeds all the other states combined. In the eastern
part of the state, the weaving of woolen, cotton, and silk,
and the making of engines and machinery are important
industries.
From the timber-covered mountains lumber is floated
jiown the rivers to the sawmills and phming mills, and
with the oak and hemlock bark much leather is tanned in
the northwestern half of the state.
The soil of the valleys and of the eastern Inwland is fer-
tile and gives to Pennsylvania a high rank as a wheat-
growing and dairying state.
The water gaps through the Appalachian ridges have
made the state the great railroad thoroughfare between
the seaboard and the upper Mississippi valley. Canals
connect the bituminous coal regions with Lake Erie and
the anthracite coal regions with New York, Delaware, and
Chesapeiike bays.
Philadelphia is the third city in the Union in popnla-
tioii. It was founded about fifty years later than New
York or Boston, aud for a long time it was called " The
Quaker City." Why t It was laiii out between the Dela-
ware and Schuylkill rivers near their junction, though it
Smelting furnaces, Pittsburg.
Bug weaving, Philadelphia.
lias now spread far west of the
Schuylkill and along the Delaware
for many miles. Ocean steamers
ascend to its wharves, and the city
cxjiort-s much coal.
The nearness of the anthracite
coal region makes fuel plenty and
chcnp, and Philadelphia has be-
come one of the greatest manu-
facturing cities of the country.
Chief among its inanufactnres
are woolen goods, carpets, aod
clothing. Sugar refining, and tie
making of lieavj' iron machinery,
locom<)tives, and steel steamships, are also important
industries.
For over a century Philadelpliia was the eliief commercial city of the
United .States, but as the Central Lowlau<l became settled the Erie Cuul
was made, and trade followed the natural route through the low Mohavli
valley ; so New York became the greater seaport.
Cfnigres.^ was in session in Philadelphia when it declared the inde-
pendence of this eountry in 177(i. After the H evolutionary War Phila-
delphia was the capital of the country for several years, and the Federal
Constitution was jirepared there. Independence Hall, in which tb^
Declaration of Independence was made aud the Constitution framed, is
still standing and in much visited.
lu Philadelphia is locate<I the great University of Pennsylvania.
rUfshmif and Allet/heni/ togctlier form the great center
of population in western Pennsylvania. They are in tbe
hi-art of th(! bituminous coal, petroleum, and natural gas
region. More than half the coke of tiie country, and cue
fifth of the iron and steel, are made in and near Pitts-
burg, This too is the greatest center in the world for
tbe manufacture of plate glass. Allegheny has important
fan Tier ics,
Befi>re the days of railroads thes* cities possessed the great commer-
ciai aiivantage of tliL' river routes nffordiMl by the Ohio and the two
rivers which hen- uiiile to form it, utiil millions of bushels of coal are
still shipped from Pittsburg down the Ohio.
Scranton is a mining center of the anthracite coal re-
gion. It is also a railroad center, and has large iron
aud steel works, breweries, and silk mills. Reading is
UNITED STATES.
71
Silk factory, Paterson, IT. J.
in a rich agricultural region, and receives by canal cheap
fuel from the anthracite regions to supply its iron and
steel works and foundries. Erie has a fine harbor and
a large trade in iron ore, lumber, and coal. It has im-
portant iron works, foundries, and flour mills. Harris-
burg, the capital, is located in a fertile region, and manu-
factures iron, steel, and rail-
road cars.
HEW JERSEY. Describe the
tion of New Jersey. What Iwo
and what bay form part of ils bound-
ary 1 Describe the coa.st. Locati
moantaina; the capes j two I'anals; tli
capital ; three larg-e cities in Ihe north-
ern part; one in the western part.
New Jersey is one of tln^
smallest states. The beaches
of its seacoast are much ri'-
sorted to during the sumiut-r.
The state is crossed by two
canals and many railroads, ini-l
the uortli eastern jiart is a
great comraert^ial and manu-
facturing region. The state
ranks first in the mauufac-
ture of sUk, pottery, and cast
iron pipe. The making of
leather and machinery, and
the refining of petroleum,
are important industi-ies.
Vegetables and fruits are
raised in large quantities.
Jersey City is practicaUy a ^^^^^^^ ^^^^
part of New York city. It
is the terminus of the railroads from the south and west,
and is bordered by many steamship docks. It contains
large chemical works and soap factories. Hoboken and
Bayonne are continuous with Jersey City.
Newark refines metals and manufactures machiuery,
leather, and thread. In Patcrson more silk is waimfaL'-
tuj'c<l tiiau in any other American city. Trenton is one
of the leading pottery centers of the countiy. Camden,
really a suburb of Philadelphia, manufactures oilcloths.
9, CbHipnUce Bfty.
DELAWARE. Oire the physical boondaries of the peninsula of
which Delaware is a part ; the political bonndaries of Delaware. Com-
pare it in size with New Jersey. Locate the capital ; the ehief city.
The northern part of Delaware belongs to the manufac-
turing region about Philadelphia; the southern part to
the vegetable- and fmit-growing region, peaches being
particularly excellent and abundant. The manu-
facture of the crates and baskets in which these
proilucts are shipped forms a common industry
in the state.
Wihn'mgion contains almost half the popula-
liuu of the state, aud is noted for its ear works,
;iliiliyards, and for the manufaetm-e of leather
;ind gunpowder.
MARYLAND. Comi^are the seaooast of Maryland
wiih its bay coast. What other stales own parts of the
peuinsiJu incluiiing castiTtt Maryland I What river fortns
most of the southern liouadary of filarylandl By what
Ktates is Marj-land bouii Jed t Which part is in the Atlantic
plain I Which is in the mountain region t Locate the
capital ; the ehief city ; one other city.
The short seacoast of Maryland is fringed
with barrier beaches, but Chesapeake Bay con-
tains many good harbors, and the chief oyster
beds of the country.
Fruits, vegetables, and
tobacco are important
products. In the west-
ern part of the state are
valuable coal mines.
Baltimore is one of the
cities that has gi'own up
on the Fall fine. Its
fine harbor, in the estu-
ary of Patapsco River,
is nearer the great grain
fields of the Central
Lowland than is that of
any other Atlantic sea-;
port, and to it tlie water
gaps of the Potomac
1 convenient route. For these reasons Balti-
more lias become one of the great food-shipping ports.
ThemakinKPf clot hinjr, the canninp and preserving of fruit and vege-
tables from the siurouading region and of oysters from Chesapeake Bay,
andthemanufaelureof tobacco, are the principal nianufacturiugiudustries.
Baltimore is the seat of the famous Jojins Hopkins University.
Cumberland has a canal to tidewater in the Potomac,
and is the shipping point for tlie Maryland coal regions.
It has important iron and steel works and foundries.
At Annapolis is the United States Naval Academy.
THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The District of ColumbU was
given to the United States by Maryland as a site for the national capital.
Washington, the most beautiful city in the Union, is
situated where the Potomac Eiver ci-osses the Fall line.
Unlike most cities, "Washington did not grow up from an
iiTcgular village, but a large capital city was planned
72
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
Glass furnace. Wheeling, W. Va.
before it was built at all; hence its stveots are stniijiht
and broad. When the settled [Mirt of the United States
was a narrow strip along the Athiutit' ooast, a position
was chosen for its caiiital alu.nt midway between its
northern and southern limits. Wliy was the location ad-
vantageous? Has it the same convenience
now t For wliom was the city named f
Not only do the President and the Vico President
of the United States live in Washinpton, but thfre also
reside the members of the President's Cabinet and the
foreign ministers, who como to our countrj' from all
the nations of the earth to represent their govern-
ments and to look iifter the interests of their people.
The senators and representatives meet in the Capitol
(p. 55), and Confess is in session for several loonths of
each year, making lavs for the entire country.
Though Washington is built where water power can
be obtained, and where navigation from the sea is
ponmble, the city has little commerce or manufactur-
ii^, other than government printing. It has grown
up simply as the national capital.
VIRGINIA. What states border Virginia T Trace
through the state the divide of the Mississippi basin.
Name three rivers of the Atlantic slope; two of the Mississippi slope.
Locate two capes ; the mountain ranges ; the capital ; the chief seaport ;
three other important cities.
More than half the people of the state are engaged in
agriculture. Virginia ranks among the foremost states in
the Union in the production of tobacco, and tlie peanut
crop is the largest in the country.
There are valuable coal and iron mines. By means
of the valleys and water gaps of the Kanawha, Roanoke,
James, and Potomac rivers, several railway lines cross the
mountains and convey coal and other pix)ducts to tiie ftue
harbors of Chesapeake Bay. The Great Valley west of
Blue Ridge is very fertile. In it are the caverns of Luray,
and, farther south, the Natiu'al Bridge. How were these
formed f (p. ir>.)
Itichmond and Petersbur//, on the Fall line, manufacture
innch tobacco. Norfolk has a tine harbor and is an im-
portant shipping point for coal, cotton, lumber, fish, and
peaimts. A United States Navy Yard is located liere.
Newport News is also au important railroad terniiuus and
seaport. Lynchburg is a great tobacco market.
WEST VIHGIKIA. What rivers form part of the boundary of Wert
Virginia t What w the eastern boundarj- of the state I Trace the mam
divide across the state. What river basin embraces most of the stateT
' Locate the capital ; three cities on the Ohio.
In the i>rodnction of petroleum, coal, and natural gas,
West Virginia is one of the foremost states. Much salt
also is produced. There are extensive forests and fine
' grazing lands on the iilateans, while fanning is pursued
chiefly in the fertile lower lands farther west.
miccliiif/, in the coal and gas region, mannfactmvs
iron, glass, and steel. What cities in Pennsylvania have
the same industries f Iliitithifftoii ships coal and lumber,
and P(n/:rrslnirff is in the oil region.
Supplemental Work. Tell one anecdote of tlie Dutch in New Yoii,
till' Quiikii-« in Pennsylvania, or the early settlers in some other nortb-
cm Apptklochiaii stat«. Read "Stories of New Jersey," by StockloD,
" Stories tit Pi'nnsylvaui.T," liy Walton and Brumbaugh, " The Storj' of
' thot'ity of New York," or of Washington, by Todd. Describe as fully m
New York is desciil)ed one other city in this section. Bead or recite
one seli-etion from Longfellow's '■ Poems of Places," Vols. 27 and 29.
The Ohio Valley and Upper Lake States. The six
I states of this section that lie between the Appalachiaii
Mountains and the Mississippi River are
sometimes called the " East Central States."
Through these states trace the divide be-
tween the St. Lawrence and Mississippi
basins. Which states are in both basins)
Which are in only one basin f A larger
or smaller part of each of these states lies
in the Prairie plains, and all are heavy pro-
ducers of grain and meat. "Which of them
contain extensive forests! Which are in
the coal region 1 (map, p. 59.)
OHIO. Give the natiualboundariesof Ohio. Whal
states border it ! Name one tributary of Lake Erie;
two oi the Ohio. Trace tlirough the state the main
divide. Ijocate the capital; tnolakeports; fiveother
im[>ortant cities.
natural Bridge, Virsinia.
Ohio has a very high rank both as a manufacturing and
as an agricultural state, and it is the first wool-gi-owiug
state in the Uuioii. It ranks second in the production of
petroleum and natural gas. The abundance of iron ore
Tobacco field, Virginia.
Lumber yards at Chicago
liviJo
74
is one of the greatest
food-producing states
of the Union. The mid-
dle coal field underlies
almost the entire state,
and has enabled Illinois
to take a very high rank
as a coal-prod ueing and
manufacturing state.
It has more miles oi
railroad tlian any other
6tat«, aud is traversed
hy a navigalile water
route connecting tiie
Mississippi River with
Lake Michigan by way
of the Illinois River and a canal across tin; low
to Chicago.
Chicago is the largest city on tlie continent, except New
York, and it is the gi-eatest market in the woild for meat
and grain.
It was settled At the month of the little t'hioa;^> River, which rises so
near a branch of the lUingis River that it was ii ftivin-ite Indian route
between the Great Lakes and llie SIissi!jsi|)i)i v.iUey. After l>oth (."iiicin-
nati aud Cleveland had Iwi-n foiiiuicd, Ihe I'liiteil States government
buUt Fort Dearborn, wliere Chieafro now sfeinils, tci protect the few
traders from the Indians who were coiislantly jmssing to and from the
portage. Alioiit this fort clustered iniinj- white men wlio eame to trade.
A flourishing city grew so rapidly that it iiuw hns about two niiUion
people. It stretches twenty-five miles along the lake front and extends
several miles back over the prairies.
What conditions are necessary U> the rapid growtli ami pi'osperity of
a city t (p, 42.) Chioigo is in the center of the gri'atest gi'jiin-jrrowing
and stock-raising region of the world, and the fori'sis of the north are
easy of access. There is an ample supply of coal in the region just soutli
of the city, and from the shores of Lake Superior is reeeiv<tl the best of
iron ore. Itseommerce may be carried on by way of the Mississipiii River
or the Great Lakes, or goods may be tramtported hy railroadfi which enter
the city from the north, west, and south, tor Chicago has become the
greatest railroad center iu the world. As a result Chicago is not only
a great commercial city but a great manufacturing center. Thousands
of cattle and hoga are billed every day in the stock yards of the city,
and loads of beef, pork, and otiier mnuufaetured animal products are
sent to all parts of the counti'j-. Tanneries along the river hanks take
the hides from the slaughterhouses and conv(>rt them into leather, and
mills and factories change the timber of the North into planed luinber.
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
and meat-packing establishment.s, and maih
nfactures agricultural implements and nia-
cliinery. Qiihicif is a large trade center, and
has extensive flour mills and iron foundries.
Sprhifijiekl, the capital, is an important coal-
mining center. Rockford manufactures agri-
cultural implements, t'urnifure,and knit goods,
and, like Elgin, has large watch works. Joliel
has ini(>ortaiit iron and steel works and ex-
tensive limesfnne ([Uiirries.
KENTUCKY. What states border Kentucky 1 Whit
thn'C rivers form much of its Iwundary t In what drain-
age basin \* the state 1 Name the principal rivers. Lo.
cute the capital; four impoi-tant cities.
Tlie most valuable cmp is corn, but the state
produces nearly half of the tobacco raised in
tlio whole country. Hemp and sorghum are also charac-
teristic crops. Kentucky raises much live stock, and is
iiiited for its tine horses. If has iron and coal mines aod
stock yards at Chicago.
fine liaril-wooil forests. Mjunmutli Cave, in the eenfran
part of the state, is one of the largest caverns known.
Loitisrille, at the nipids or "falls" of the Ohio, is on — .
sashes, doors, aud furniture, railroad c
The iron ore f I'oni Lake Superior and the
coal from the Illinois coal fields can lie
brought to Cliicago so cheaply that this
city has become one of the great irim-
aud sl«el-raaking centers of the country.
The University of Chicago, though one
of tlie youngest, is one of the largest in
the United States.
The business quarter borders the Chi-
cago River, which flows through the city
and forms the harbor, while the resi-
dence portion surrounds this quarter on
tlie north, west, and south.
Peoria, on an expansion of the
IlHnois River called Peoria Lake,
has great distilleries, stock yards,
and agricultural imph
of the largi-st tobacc
river steamers is built .
rM-^
A blue-grass stock farm, Kentucky.
uirkets in the world. A canal f*
round the rapids. The nuiuufji(_^
furc iif tobacco, distilling, bre^""-
iug. meat packing, aud taiiuinia?"
are leading industries.
('iiciiifitiiii and y'cirport are op-
jiositi' (.'iui-iiuiati and have simi-
lar industries. What are they}
Lcxiiii/toit is the center of the
stock-raising country known as
the Blue Orass I'egion.
MICHIGAN. What states farther
east are in the same latitude as Miehigant
IJy wliidi of the Great Lakes is it bor-
deri'd i Locate the Strait of Mackinac ;
the St. Marys River and Canal ; Lake
St. Clair 1 the capital ; four other cities.
76
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
duces nearly all the flaxseetl, or linseed, raised in the
United States. AVhat is made from linseed 1
UINNESOTA. Give the boundaries of Miiuu'sotft. What three frroat
riwr syatema have their heml waters in t)iis stati' f Whirh sy.-iteiii dmins
the greater part of the state I Locate the cajjital ; three otiifr citifs.
More than half of tlio state is fiiM'st-<'lad, — witli pine in
the north and with oak and other hard woodw in the sontii-
west, — and lumbering i.s an extensive industry. Yet -Min-
nesota is the greatest wheat-prndneirig slate in the Ciiion.
The flat valley of the Red River is prol»;il>]y tlic> ninsl ii.-HVi-t ivlirat-
fariiiing refrion in the wiirUl. During the jrlacial iH-ri.Hi hldm ••( tliis valley
was a \-ast hike, upon the
bottom of whit'h sediment
was deposifwi to form the
fertile soil and level surface
of the present wheat tields.
The iron mines in
the northeastern i)art
of the stiite are among
the rieliest and most
extensive in tlie world.
Mi micdpolif iiml St.
Paid, though seitarate
cities lying side by side, really form a single eentfT of
jiopulation and one of the ten greatest eomniereial and
manufacturing eenters in the country.
In 1S19 the United States Imilt Fnrt Sm-Uing at the nioutli of the
Minnesota River, at tlie head <if im\-igaticm in the Mississijipi, and a tVw
miles below the Falls of St. Anthony in that river. No town <-ouUl be
built until the government had bought the region fn)ni tlie indians.
When this was done, about twenty years later, a settlement was maiie at
the falls. Eniijmints from New Knglan<l Bo<jn si'ttled there and built
sawmills and Hour iiiiUs, and thus grew the greatest rtour-miUing and
IOWA.
What riv.
ron
id itt
Which thv.
diets that boan.l I
Ihn
e Stat
sf Lcieute
owa
iroilui'es
oti
er st
ite in the
Hills at HtDDeapolis below the Falls of St. Anthony.
one of tlie greatest lumber-milUug cities in the world. Ii wa> well eidleil
>Iinnea[iolis (water-dty), since its loi-aliou, growth, and greatue:-.s de-
pend largely upon the water power <if the Falls of St. Aiiihony.
Alxiut the s;inie time that .Minnca|M>lis was settled. Father fiuulti.r
built on the Imnksof the .Mississippi, opiwisite Fort Snelliny, the Hllle log
cliapel of St. Paul, which gave its name to the si-ttli'menf of French and
Swiss Canadians that s)>rang up arouml il. Later came niany (ieriiians
and emigTiiats from Uhiu and Peuusyh ania, and thus grew the gi-eat com-
mercial city and state capital at the head of navigation en the Ml-^siissippi.
Jhiluth, at the head of navigation on the Gi'eat Lakes,
forms, with the city of Huiierior opposite, another center
of jiopulation. It has a line harbor and great docks aud
elevator.s. It is at the eastein end of a railroad to the Pa-
eifte, and sliips wheat, liom', lumber, iron oi^e, aud copper,
\Vii<f»ia haw a largo trade in lunilier and wheat.
< form part of its lK>iindaryI What states rar-
states of the Northeasti'm Section are within Qte
la 1 How does Iowa eomiian- in area with the^
s capital ; fimr other cities.
Ktre corn, oats, hay, and hogs than any
.'nioii, and it is among the first in the
production of barley,
pt)tat<ieR, cattle, and
dairy products. It
yields more bitumin-
ous coal than any
other state west of
the Mississippi.
Dcs il/«/«('5, the capi-
tal, is an imjKirtant
railroad and tradewii-
ter in a mining iiii'l
rii-h grazing region.
DithnqKi' lias large lumber mills, carriage factories, ami
meat-packing estahlishnii'tits. /M(r///»'W, with Kocklskmi
iiinl Moline ujipnsile, forms an important center of (rale
and manufacture. It is a great grain market, an.l iiiauu-
factures Inndier and Hour. Sioux Citif has large nj>'at- ;
packing establishments, and is an important trade center.
llnrliHfitim has many lumber mills.
MISSOURI. What rivei-s lorni pari of the l>oundar>- of Missowil
states surround hi What mountains are in the stalet Lowile
pitali its four chief cities.
On the rolling prairies of the northern half of the state
the raising of grain, sorghinn, and cattle and hogs is the I
<'hi''f occupation, wliile in the forest -covered plateau of '
the Ozai'k Mountains the jiroduction of fruit and wool, ami
lumbering, are iniporiant industries. Mu<'h coal is iiiiue<i
in the northern, central, and western parts of the state.
The greater jiart of the zinc mined in the country, awl
much h'ud, conu^ fmni a snndi region including the south-
west coi-ncr of the slate.
St. Louis is the largest ciiy in the 3Iissi.ssi]>pi basiu, and
is exceeded in po]nilalion by I'Ut three cities in the Vuion-
It is oni> of the great commercial centers of the couutr)',
and the ]irini-ipal col). 'ding ami <listril)Uting point for the
sontliwot'Tn i|uarlci- of the Tnited fSlates.
St. Louis was s«-tlled by French fur tr;idei-s fnmi New Drieaus
uliKUI till- lime France sniTcndeiiil the eastern half of the Missiwippi
valley Ui (in-iil Hrilain. The site was seleeted bii-ause of it.s central liX-a-
tiiui and admirable facilities fur river Inide with all parts of the Missis-
sippi valley. The>e adviiiilage-' later made it a gix'at railroail cenler.and
are tliu n-asons fur its growth and iii-os|ierity. For forty years nearly all
tile settlers were French i>r Sjiaiiish. and it was not until after the
I'liiled Slates bought the Western half of the Mississippi basin in 1S03,
that ferries across the river wei-e eslatdislied at St. Louis, and English-
qteaking emigriiuts from the East began to settle there. The rapid
tINITED STATES.
77
Growing com, Hebiaska.
bnilding of railroada, and the development of the aicricultural
of the surronndin^ refriona, have made St. Ixiuis a great center for the
collection and manufacture of farm products. The principal manufac-
tures are malt liquors, tobacco, Sour, and meat products.
Kansas City is an important receiving and distributing
point for a large region to the west. It forms a center of
population with Kansas City, Kansas. St. Joneph is noted
for the making of men's shirts and overalls, and for
flour milling. Springfield has important fl-mr mills
and a large local trade.
KANSAS. What states bordpr it f What ci
altitude of the stat«1 Name its two chief ri<
three other cities.
1 you say of the
irs ; its capital ;
Tlie surface of Kansas i.-^ a long, gradual slope, the
western boundary being about half a mile higher
than the eastern. In the west, eattle herding is the
chief industry; in the east, farming. Explain thi;^
difference. Kansas ranks among the first four or fivf
states in the production of corn, wheat, cattle, and
hogs. There are im-
portant coal, zinc, and
lead mines in the east-
ern, andsaltminesin the
central part of the state.
Kansas C't/y is contin-
uous with Kansas City,
Missouri, the middle of
a public street being the
dividing line. The city
ranks next to Chicago
in slaughtering and
meat packing, which
are leading industries.
Topeka, the capital, has large flour mills. Wichita is in
a wheat-growing aud stock-raising region. Leavenworth is
in the coal-mining region of northeastern Kansas.
NEBRASKA. How does Nebraska resemble Kansas in surface ; in
diainaget What states surround iti What river forms its eastern
boundary T What tribntary of the Hissonri drains most of ttie stateT
Locate the capital ; one other lai^e city.
Nebraska, like Kansas, lies on the long, gradual slope
west of the Missouri River, down which the wide, shallow
tributaries of that stream flow in broad but not deep val-
leys. The rainfall in the east is sufficient for veiy success-
ful farming. The west is drier, but affords excellent pastur-
age for vast herds of cattle.
Omaha, with Council Bluffs and East Omaha in Iowa,
and South Omaha in Nebraska, forms a single center of
population, eonimeroe, and manufacture. There are ex-
tensive breweries, works for smelting and refining silver
ore from the Rocky Mountains, and very large meat^
packing establishments.
Lincoln, tiie capital, is a trade center, doing a large dis-
tributing business in coal, grain, and live stock.
SOUTH DAKOTA. What states border it 1 What rivers form part
of its boundary 1 In what part of the state is the greatest elevation of
likndf What river drains nearly the whole state T Compare the area
of South Dakota with that of New England. Locate the capital and
chief cities.
The surface of South Dakota is somewhat less smooth
than that of Kansas and Nebraska. In the east are hills
of glacial drift, and in the west there is a flat dome-shaped
upheaval of rock, which has been gradually worn down
into a cluster of mountain
ridges called the Black
Hills. Here gold and sil-
ver are mined and a low
grade of tin ore is found.
In the east wheat and
flaxseed are the most im-
portant crops.
Sioux Fallshas flnewater
power, and is the railroad
center of the state. Dead-
wood is the mining center
in the Black Hills region.
NORTH DAKOTA. What
states and country bound Ncvth
Dakota 1 What river boundai?
has it T What three states does
it resemble la surface T In what
two draiiiftge slopes does North Dakota Ue 1 Trace the divide between
tbein. Locate the capital nod cliiuf cities.
Much of North Dakota past of the Missouri is covered
with glacial d)-ift. How was the Red River valley formed?
Some of the wheat farms iu this valley are thousands of
acres in extent. Grazing and stock raising are impor-
tant iiKUistrie.s.
Fargo is at the head of navigation on the Red River,
and is the center of sevex'al railroad lines. Grand Forks is
in the rich wheat region.
Supplemental Work. Read chapter 21 of McMaster's " School His-
tory of the United States," aud tell some anecdote connected with the his-
tory of this section. Read " Stories of Missouri," by Musick. Describe
as fully as St. Louis is described one other city in the section. Read or
recite one selection from Longfellow's " Poems of Places," VoL 29.
railroad station, St. Louis.
78
PARTS OF THE KARTR
THE SODTHERN SECTION.
Which part of thia seption is highland T Which part is lowland f
Which states contain part of the- Appalachian Mountains t Which states
lie partly or wholly in the Atlantic plun t Which lie partly or wholly in
the Golf plain 1 Which divisions are brokt:n by the Oz^rk Mountains t
Which lie partly in thi' Great Plains } Which quarter of the United
States embraces most of the Soutliem Section t What kind of Bum-
mers and winters prevail in this section f (map, p. 5i.)
Long, hot summers and short, temperate winters pre-
vail over nearly the whole of this section. Altliongh
snow sometimes falls in all the states, it soon melts.
Over nearly the whole section tho rainfall is abundant for
purposes of fanninjij. It is only in the extromewest that
serious droughts occur.
The surface for a hundi-od miles or more from the coast
is quite flat, then occur the low Piedmont hills in the east,
and thu gently rolling plains in tlie west. The surface
is rugged only near thu Appalachian and Ozark ridges
and near thi^ unmntains in the extreme west. The soil,
though -sandy towanl the coast, is generally very fertile.
Agriculture is the great industry, and cotton is by far
the most inipuitant cn»p (map, y. 58). More than one
fourth of the farm land is devoted to the cultivation of
this fiber, and this se<;tion is the worKl's greatest cotton-
producing region.
Most of the ordiiiiiry or "iiiilaud" cottiin is jirrowii in a broad belt
Ij-in^r uliout nni' humln-d iiiil<'-< from tin' i-oast, am) streti^hing fnmi Ti-xas
ti>S..rth I'lirriliim. with .■xlcii^ions up llu- viiUcys of the Mississijipi and
its great trihufariis. Ttif lin.-sl i-ott..». h.mfv.T. - that with the longest
and lout^hest tiber, - comes from the sea iiilands along the Atlantic coast.
tIKITED STATES.
79
After cotton, com is the most extensive crop of the
section, particularly in the northern part, where wheat
and tobacco are also grown, while from the southeiii
part come all rice and cune KUgav prothicod in this country,
and many of the oranges. This section also produces most
of the peaches and sweet potatoes raised in the United
States. " In the northern part, where grain is grown,
many hogs and fine horses are raised, and in the west-
em part, many cattle and sheep.
What part of this section is wooded! (map, p. 59.)
Why are forests not found in the western part t In the
northern part of the section, especially in the valleys of
the Appalachian and Ozark Alnuntaiiis, are our most ex-
tensive forests of oak, hickory, asli, poplar, and cotton-
wood. The forests of the coast plain are composed chiefly
of yellow or Bonthem pine, which is a much harder
wood than the white pine of the North. These forests
not only yield valuable building lumber, but from the
abundant pine sap are made great quantities of naval
stores — pitch, rosin, and turpentine.
In what parts of this section are there coal fields?
(miip, p. 59.) Coal mines ai'e worked in all these
fields, but the most extensive are in the Appalachian
and Ozai-k regions. Near the southern end of the Ap-
palachians, so much iron ore is olitained that it has
bei'ome the gi'eatest iron-mining region in the country,
after the Lake Superior region.
From tlie city map, on p. 59, how do you think
this section cotiipiires with the northeastern quarter of
the country as a manufacturing region 1
Until about thirty -fivo yeAra ago nearly all the labor in the Southern
Section waa pfrformed by negro slaves. These Blaves could plant
bnil paiher cottim and do farm work, but few of them were able to
manage nmchioery ; consequently very little mannfacturing was then
donu in the South, ni?arly all manufactured goods nsed there, sooh aa
cloth, furniture, tools, and implements, being brought from foreign
countrii's or the Nortli in exchange for raw cotton. Since the Civil
War, during which the slaves were freed, white mechanics have set-
tled in the South, the negroes are becoming more intelligent, and
manufacturing is becoming an important iDdnstry.
Cotton cloth is made at many places, especially in the
eastern part of the section, and this branch of manufac-
ture is rapidly increasing. Cottonseed oil is extensively
made in the central and west central parts, and sugar in
the Mississippi delta. Much iron and steel are manufac-
tured in tne iron-raining region, and there are many
sawmills in the forest regions, and turpentine distilleries
in the great pineries of the Southeast.
The coast of nearly the whole section is fringed with
barrier beaches, and many of the inlets between them
have narrow, crooked channels, often obstructed by shift-
ing bars. Hence foreign commerce is not so great as on
our northeastern coast, though much cotton and some
coal and lumber are exported, and there is an active
coasting trade in small vessels. Turn to the railroad
map (p, 60), and notice that the railroads of the section
are separated by the Appalachian Mountains into two
groups. Wliere is the eastarn group t The other group
connects the Southwest with the northern part of the
Mississippi valley on either side of the Ozark Mountains.
These two groups are onnneoted by several lines across the Appala-
chians and around their southern end; but each group mdicateis the
route taken by trade in its region : the Atlantic plain trading mostly
with the northeastern part of the country, bul. the Southwest and lower
Mississippi valley mostly with the great central prairie region..
Turn to the population map (p. 57), and tell how the
density of population in this section compares with tliat
in the northeastern quarter of the coxintry. The Southern
Section contjiins about one fourth of the people in the
Uniteil States. There are very few foreignei-s ; but about
one tliird of the jwople are negroes, and in several of the
states the neg^es are more numerous than the whites.
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
KORTH CAROLIITA. What states border North Carolina T To
what two slopes does its drainage belongt Name the principal rivers.
Nome two mountain ranges ; a mountain peak. What have you learned
about this peaki Deaoribe the coast, and teU the manner of its formn-
tion (p. ^). Locate the chief sounds; three capes. What part of tbe
state is swampy t Locate the capital ; the other cliief cities.
Much of tlie Tidewater region of the state i.s swaiui>y ov
covered with open pine forests. Eice, peanuts, sweet pota-
toes, and eavly vegetables are important n-nps in tlie Uglit
and sandy soils of this regiou. In tho Piedmont region
cotton, tobacco, corn, and wheat are raised, and the for-
_ est-covered mountains of tho west yield miu-li valualile
hard-wood lumber.
The manufacture of cotton is increasiug rapidly, the
mills already consuming more eotton than is raised in tin-
state. Othev important industries are tin- iiuuiufaclure
of tobacco, lumber milling, and the di.stilltng of rosin and
turpentine.
Wilmington, the chief seaport of the state, is an
important cotton market, and ships great (piantilies of
lumber and naval stores. Rahiyh, on the Fall line, has
important cotton mills and tobacco factories. Ckdiioitc
is tho great cotton-manufaetuiing center of the state.
Ashevilk, the commercial center of tho western part, is
a famous health resort. Durham and WiiisiDii have large
tobacco factories.
SOUTH CAROLHf A. Between what two states is Sonth C'ar<iltnn T
What river separates it from Georgia t Describe the surface. Which
are its two largest rivers T Locate the capital ; the other chief cities.
More than one third of the cultivated laud is de\otod to
cotton. The swampy Tidewater region yields mueli liee,
the state ranking second in the Union in this jiroduct.
Much attention is given "to the cultivation of early fruit
and vegetables for the Northern markets. From the pine
forests lumber and naval stores are obtained. A groat
deal of phosphate rock is dug in the Tidewater region,
and shipped for use as a fertilizer. Cotton weaving,
lumber milling, turpentine distilling, rice cleaning, and
fertilizer making are tbe chief manufacturing iudustrie.s.
Charleston lias long been one of the leading cities of
the South. It owes its prosperity largely to its fine har-
bor. It was at Fort Sumter in this harbor that the fiist
engagement of the Civil War took place. Much cotton,
rice, lumber, and fertilizers are shipped from this port
Columbia, the capital, is on the Fall line. Its fine wa-
ter power is used by several large cotton factories.
Greenville nianufu<'tures cotton cloth.
GEORGIA. What Bfatcs Iwrder Qeorgiat What rivers form part
of the biiundary f Wliiit arc the chief rivers of Georgia dniiniDg the
Allatilio slept); the Gulf slopcl What part of the state is draiaed
liy tlio ^li^nssippi system 1 Trace the divides of these three slopes.
Locate OkeAuokeo tiwauip ; ihe capital ; the other chief cities.
(Tcofgia is one of the leading cotton-growing states, and
exceeds all other states in the yield of peaches. The
crops of sweet potatoes, rice, and sugar are also laige.
The pine forests yield much lumber, and more turpentine
Sice field. South Caiolina.
Turpentine distillery, southern Georgia.
and rosin than any other region in the world. There are
valuable quarries <if inarl)le and granite in the north,
Georgia ranking as second state in the production of
marble. Ttie fine water powers along the Fall line, and
tlie coal and iron mines in the north, give Georgia a high
manufactming rank among the Southern states. The
chiijf manufactures aro cotton, lumber, and naval stores.
Atlanta, the capital, was destr<iye{l during the Civi\
\Yhv, but lias grown raiiidly .since, and is one of the great*
est cniiimeriiial cities and railroad centei-s of the Sontt*-
It owfs its prosperity largely to its location near th-*
southern end of tlie massive Blue Ri<lge, and thus wher^
comnuuiication is easy with tho North and with both th^
eastern and western groups of Southern railroads. It ha^
cotton mills and many other manufactories.
Savannah was tbe first phu'C settled in the state. It
was taken by tlic Rrilisli during tlie Revolution ^nd was
the scene of lighting during the Civil "War. It is eigh-
teen miles from the ocean, but has one of the deepest
harbors on the Southern coast. The first steamship to
cross the Athintic sailed fniin this port. Savannah ships
much cotton, rice, and luml)er, and more naval stores
tluiii any other port in the worM.
Aut/iin(a and Ctifninhn-'<, on the Fall line, have many
cotton mills. Muiyni, also on tho Fall line, manufactures
lumber and fertilizers.
UNITED STATES
81
FLORIDA. Wluit 8tat«9 border on Floritlat What watereT Name
its cbief buys ; capes ; rivers. Trace the main divide. Which slope
embraces the greater part of the state t Locate tlie capital ;
the Conr chief cities.
The surfaeo of Florida is everywher
lowaud fliit, so that the streams are shig-
gish, and many of tliem have numerous
lakeliko expansions. Tlie southern jiart
of the peiiinsuhi lias been formed by
additions to the mainland of succes-
sive lines of e()r;d reefs, or kci/s, that
grew up iu the warm, shallow water
along: the eoast (p. 21). This part of
the sttUe is now mostly a gvQut marsh
called "The Ever^rlades."
Tlie raising of early vef^etables and
fruits, especially oranges; lumbering in
the north ; and the making of eigjirs
from Cuban tobacco, are the chief in-
dustries. The mild climate has made tlit-
state a favorite winter resort for invalids.
Jacksonville, tiie business center of tht^
lumber and orange.-*, and is a great winti
West, the most southerly city in the eounti-y, manufac-
tures many cigars and exports sponges, Tuiiipa is an
important shipping point for sonthern Flm-idii, and man-
ufactures cigars. St. Auffiistine is the olde.-^t town in
the United States, and contains fine hotels for winter
guests.
ALABAMA. What slates border Alabama t Wliat water bound-
aries has iti Trace tlip main divide of the state. What rivers dmin
most of the slate simlh of the divide T Into wlint hny do tliej both
flowT What river drains the nortbem part of the state! Into what
does it flow T Locate the capiUil ; tlie other chief cities.
Besides the great agi'iciiltural indnstiy, which produces
large crops of cotton, sweet potatoes, and corn, the indus-
try of mining is very important. More coal is mined in
ai'e found so close together in Alabama that iron can be
very cheaply made, and the state has become the third
center in the Union for its manufacture. Lumber
milling is also an important industiy.
Mobile, at the head of Mobile Bay, ia the
oldest large city in the section. It is a gi'eat
cottou-ahipping port, and has hirge lumber
mills, Birmingham and Aniiiston are in
the mineral region, and have many
iron furnaces and rolling mills, Mojit-
ijoiiiery, the capital, is an important
Irade center.
MISSISSIPPI. Wfial states border Jliasia-
sippi T Wliat water boundaries bus it 1 What
river in the western part of tLe state is really a
large ba^'ou of the Mississippi T By what river is
extreme northeastern part of Ihe state drained T
^te the capital ; the chief cities.
stdte, exports
[• resort. A>;/
Rolling milla near Biimingham, Ala,
northern Alabama than in any other Southern state, and
in the production of iron ore this state ranks next after
Michigan and Minnesota. Iron ore, coal, aud limestone
Picking cotton, Mississippi.
The broad flood plain of the Mississippi includes all the
imrt of the state between that river and the Yazoo, and is
one of the most fertile regions of tlie Union. Upon these
alluvial lands is grown much of the great cotton crop.
A larger proportion of the land is planted with cotton in
Mississippi than hi any other state. Lumbering is also
an important industry.
Vickshurfi is a cotton market and the largest city of
the state. Meridian is the commercial center of eastern
JMississipjii. Natchez ships nmch cotton.
TENNESSEE. What slates border Tennessee* Wliat is its western
boundary ; it.s eastern t What phiteau cro.sses the state f Tliis is one
of i!ie Alleghany plateaus. What tributaries of the Ohio eross Ihe
slate T Compare the slopes of the eastern and wostem parts of the state
as indicated by these rivers. Loeatu llie capital ; the other chief cities.
Teimessee is divided into three regions by the Tenaes-
.see liiver and the Cumberland plateau, t'ofton growing is
ciiiifined chiefly to the western region. Much tobacco,
fruit, corn, aud stock are raised in middle Tennessee, and
more wheat thau in any other Southern state. East of
82
PARTS OP THE EABTU.
the plateau lumbering and the mining of coal and iron are
important industries. Much beautiful variegated marble
is also quai-ried in east Tennessee.
Tennessee is the foremost Southern state in manufactur-
ing — the grinding of flomr, lumber milling, the making of ■
Baling cotton, Memphla, lann.
iron and steel, and the manufacture of cottonseed oil be-
ing the leading branches of this industry.
Nashville, the capital, was founded during the Revolu-
tionary War, at a salt "lick" or spring, where game was
very plentiful, as bufEaloes, deer, and other wild animals
came to the place to lick the salt-incrusted rocks surround-
ing the spring. It soon became au important trading
point because of its river route to the lower Mississippi
and the upper Ohio, and, with the building of railroads,
it became one of the importaut commercial cities south
of the Ohio River.
Memphis was settled about eighty years ago on the high
bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, from which De
Soto discovered the river more than 350 years ago. The
bluff is the important feature of the location, for south of
this point for several hundred miles the river occupies the
centi-al part of its flood plain, and both banks are liable to
overflow. Because of its safe landing, Memphis rapidly
grew to be an important river port, and since the building
of a great railroad bridge here across the mighty river it
has become a noted railroad center. It has a large trade in
cotton, and many machine shops, and it is the great manu-
facturing center for cottonseed oil.
Knoxville is the trade center for eastern Tennessee,
and has foundries, rolling mills, and lumber mills. Chat-
tanooga is in the coal- and iron-mining region, and manu-
factures iron and steeL It is near the head of the narrow
gorge which the Tennessee River has cut through the Cum-
berland plateau, and which is utilized by several railroads;
hence the city has become an important railroad center.
ARKANSAS. What states border ATfatosM t What men form
part of its boundarieB T Wbat great tributary of the HiasUaippi flows
through itt Name the raotuitaina. In vhat direetioD does tbe state
slope f Locate tbe capital and other chief citiea
Nearly one half of the state is occupied by the broad
flood plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas rivers, whose
fertile soil produces great crops of cotton, com, and
peaches. From the forest-covered uplands valuable hard-
wood timber is obtained, and excellent cottonwood and
cypress from the fertile lower land. Coal and fine sand-
stone for whetstones are obtained from tlie rock folds
in the western part of the state. South of tbe Ozark
ridges, in the region of folded rocks, occurs a group of
\-ery celebrated hot springs, about which a town of hotels
and hospitals has grown up to accommodate the invalids
who come to bathe in the hot water.
Little Rock, the capital, has manufactures of cottonseed
oil and lumber. Fort Smith is the center of the coal i-e-
gion. Pine Bluff, on the bluff forming the western mai^n
of the gi-eat Mississippi flood plain, is a shipping point for
cotton and lumber.
LOUISIAHA. What states border on LoniBiatia T What waters! In
what general direction does its surface slope t What is tbe lai^
tributary of the Mississippi in the state! What bayou flows to tlie
Gulf from near the mouth of the Red Riverl Because of this bayonlhc
mouth of the Red River is sometimes said to be the head of the Uini-
sippi delta. What lake or arm of the Gulf is in tbe southeastern part of
the state t Locate the capital ; the chief city ; one other city.
Fully half of the state lies in the flood plains of the Mis^
sippi and Red rivers. The levees along these streanw
are anxiously watched when the rivers are rising. Wlyt
The lowlands are traversed by many bayous, and eontwn
great canebrakes and swampy forests. But in them nre
raised by far the greater part of the sugar cane grovn in
the United States, and more than iialf of the rice, wiute
cotton gi'owiug is confined largely to the uplands. Th*
Cntting •agar cane, Louisiana.
chief manufacturing industries are sugar refining, lumber
milling, and rice cleaning.
New Orleans, the largest city of the South, and one of
the twelve greatest cities of the Union, lies on both banks
of the Mississippi River, about one hundred miles from
iba mouth. Ocean vessels ascend the river to the tdty to
UNITED STATES.
85
THE PLATEAU SECTION.
Which states of this section are croEs<'d or borilered hy the Itocky
Mountains t Which states lie partly in the Ortat Plnin.i f Whii'h
states lie partly in the Columbia plateaus I Which lie partly in the Colo-
rado plateaus T Which lie partly in the Great Basin 1 Which half of the
Union embraces this section T How does the rainfall in this section com-
pare with that in the eastern half of the Union T (map, p. 54.)
This is the highland sectiou of our country. Tiio goii-
eral surface is about a mile high, Ijiit tlio mountain nmgos
and many ol" the Jilati'mis are niucii higher. Prai'tic.illy
ill till- si'c-timi is in llio (>xtrcmc noiitliw.'st.
I Anacoiida, Uont.
Throiiph the central jmrt of Ihe section thi.-
preat Rocky Mountain chain extends from
northwest to southeast, its numerous irreKular
raupeB making this the roughest and most
rugged part of the United States. Except in
llie eitremo north and in the extreme south,
thi! lun-est passes across this chain have an ele-
vation greater than the highest points of tbe
Appalachian Mountains, while very many of
the peaks reach heights of between two and
ll]ri.-e mill's, «lii-re it is too cold for any ve^'
iation to grow.
East of the mounlaint the section embraces
a wide belt of the smooth but elevated surface of the Great Plains. In
tbe great plateau re^on west of the mountains the surface is niiieh
broken by the deep canyons of the Colorado and Snake river systems;
by lines of cliffs many miles in length ; and by niunerous detached
mountain ranges formed by tilted blocks (p. 52). Between these ranges,
cliffs, and canyons, however, the plateaus are smooth and nearly level.
On the highland the summer days are usually hot, but
Ijeeauso of the elevation the nights are cool. The winters
in the north are long and very cold, but the lowland in
the south is one of the hottest parts of the United Stat^js,
The wiuters there are mild and almost snowless, and in
summer the temperature is sometimes 120°.
Only on the mountain slopes and on the highest jilateaus
is there enough rainfall to support forest growth. Else-
where the section is so diy that in-igatiou is necessary for
successful farming. In the Great Basiu and southward
the lower lands are true deserts. Much of the section,
however, is covered with coarse bunch grass, which forms
good pasturage.
By far the most important hidustry is the mining of
the metals silver, gold, copper, aud lead. This section
is the greatest silver-mining region of the world, and it
produces more than half of the gold, copper, and lead
mined in the United States. Enough coal to supply the
wants of the section is rained from numerous small coal
fields (map, p. f)!)).
Tiie metal- bearing rock or ore is usually found as veins filling old
cracks or fissures in the upheaved rocks of the mountains. Very deep
mines are sunk in following the vein from which the ore ia obtained.
Often HPVerjil diffi'rent metals, particularly silver and copper or silver
anil lead, arc found nssociuled in the sumo vein. Though this ia one
of the great lead-prndueing regions of llie world, tbe lead is obtained
After mining, lierding is the most important industry.
Vast herds of cattle find pasturage on the dreat Plains,
and thousands are annually shijijieil east to be converted
into boef. Large flocks of sheep also pasture both on the
On'at Plains nnd on the high plateaus west of the Rocky
Momitains. About one fiftii of the wool produced in the
Union comes from this section.
Some grain, vegetables, and fruit are produced for home
consumption, but, with few exceptions, farming is confined
to lands that can be
irrigated, either in the
larger river vallej-s or
near the base of the
mountains, where the
waters from mountain
streams can be led
over the land. The
lower mountain slopes
are covered with for-
ests of spruce, flr, and
bull pine, and here lum-
bering is carried on.
From the population
map (p. 57) compare
the density of popu-
lation in this section
with that of the eastern half of the Union. There are
not so many people in this whole section as in the state
of New Jersey or of South Carolina. Compare the size of
those states with that of this section.
Nearly one third of the Indians in tbe United States live in this section,
aud yet there are ten times as many whites as Indians. The Indians live
in resenaiiiina which the government has set apart for them, and within
wliieh no one else is alhiwed to settle.
From the m-ip on p. 60, compare this section with the
eastern half of the country as to the number of railroads.
Not many railroads are liecessary in a sparsely populated
region. In wliat general direction do most of the railroads
of this .section extend! Most of them are parts of trans-
continental lines which connect the railroad systems of
the East with the Pacific coast.
MONTANA. What states and country border Montana T What
part is most mountainous 1 Trace the continental divide across the
state. What two great rivers are east of the divide f What two rivers
are west ! To what are they tributary T What lake ia in the northwest I
Locate tbe capital; the other chief cities.
Sheep beiding, Wyoming.
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
MoiitaQa produces more copper than any other state in
the Uuion, and ranks high in the output of goid and sil-
ver. What state east of the Mississippi River produces
mi]eh(.'opper! (p.75.) InthoVjroad - --
valleys east of the mountains more ..^:i" ^_.-
wool is produced than in any other
state in the section; many cattle
are raised; and ciops of wheat and
oats are grown. There are sev-
eral Indian reservations within the
StJite,
Helena, tlie chief ooiiiraen-ial city,
is in a rich mineral region, liuttv
is one of the great copper-mining
The Yellmvstone National Park has been reserved from
settlement by the Federal government. It contains the
most wonderful geyser region in the world, and hundreds
— - of hot spring's whose
basins are composed
of beautiful mineral
deposits from the
cooling waters (p. 14).
Besides these there
are several beautiful
lakes, the Great Falls
and canyon of the
Yellowstone River,
and many lofty moun-
tain peaks. It is vis-
ited every year by
travelers from all
parts of the world.
COLORADO. What di-
vjsiiins border Coloi'ailo I
Traee the oontineDtal di-
Name four mountain ranges.
among the mouutftins ; three
mountain peaks. What great rivers Lave head
waters wilhin the Btals! Loi-ate the capital;
two other eiries eftst of the m oun tains ; one
i;ity auKJiig the niouulains, near iha i
ilic ArkHns.18 River.
ceuters of the world. Anaconda also has
large works for the reduction of copper o
Great Falls is an important manufacturing center.
n)AHO. What BlAtes and country border Idaho ! Wliat
the southern part; the northern part? What part ia mountainous 1
To what physical retrfon does Idaho lieloii^ ? What is the character of
its aiirfacel Looatc the capita!.
The silver ores of the northern part of the state are rich
in lead, and Idaho is one of the great lead-producing
states in the Union; the j-ield of silver and gold is also
large. In tlie north tlie rainfall is sufficient for the growth
of wheat in the valleys and for fine forests on the moun-
tain sides, so that both agiieulture and lumbering are car-
ried on. Boise is in an excellent grazing region.
WYOMING. What states border Wyoming t Trace the continental
divide through the state. What three river systems have liead waters in
this state t What are the chief mountaio ranges t Locate the YeLow-
atone Park. Naiue llie capital ; two other towns.
The raising of cattle and sheep, and coal raining, are the
chief occupations in Wyoming. It is the only state in the
section wliere coal mines are more valuable than the
mines of the metals. Yet much ore is smelted along
the transcontinental railroad which crosses the southern
part of the state.
Cheyenne and Laramie are railroad towns and important
collecting and distributing centers. Eock Sprinys is in the
coal region.
Colorado contains about as many people as all the rest
of the Plateau Section. It pi'uduces more silver tlian
any other region in the world, and it ranks first among
the state.s of our country in the production of gold ami
of leiwl. The state has also valuable mines of iron ore
and of coal. Cotisiik'rable crops of wheat and garden
produce are raised, chieHy cast of the mountains, and
herding is imimrtant in the "parks," especially in the
south. Many invalids resort to Colorado because of its
dry, ])nre air.
Denver is the receiving and distributing point for a wide
mining and herding region. It is the chief railroad center
of the state, and the largest city of the section, having
grown very rapidly since the discovery of gold in Colo-
rado just before the Civil War. Pueblo has easy access by
90
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
WASHINGTON. By what is Washiagtoo bordered ! What parts
of tlie state lie in the Columbia valley I What sound is in the north-
west f Bjr what strait ia it joined to the Paciflct What part of the
state is mountainous I Locate the capital ; two
other cities in the west ; one in the east. — — -
The western part of the stute is well
covered with cone-beai*ing forests,
which are its chief wealth. The largest
lumber mills in the world are along
Piiget Sound. The fertile farming
lands in the Sound valley and eiust
of the Cascade Mountains yield large
crops of wheat, hops, and fruits.
Coat is mined in the north more ex-
tensively than elsewhere in the sei-
A fifth- wheel, Columbia KItn.
g, Washington.
tiou. Tbe salmon fisheries of the Columbia add much to
the wealth of the state.
Seattle is in the coal and himber region. Tacoma is at
the western end of a transcontinental railway. Spokaiie
has a fino water power and many manufactories.
OREGON. By what is Oregon bordered 1
Name its three mountaiit ranges. How does
eastern Oregon compare uitb caslem Wash-
ington in elevation, slope, and climate T What
part of the state is quite dry! How doen thti
map indicate this T Name the capital; oueotbcr
city on the Willamette ; one at the mouth of the
Columbia.
In the fertile Sound valley gi-eat
quantities of wheat, oats, hops, and
fruit are raised, and mucli fine wheat
for export is grown by the aid of ir-
rigation in northeast Oregon. The
wool clip is large, and many cattle are
raised. Magnificent forests of " Ore-
gon pine " cover much of the western
half of the state, and lumbering is an
important industry. Gold mining is
carried on chiefly in the mountains of the southwest
and the nortlieast. The Columbia River salmon fisheries
of Oregon are among the most valuable in the world.
_ ._ ._ _ _ Portland is the
largest city in the
Sound volley. The
building of jetties
at the mouth of the
Columbia has made
it possible for large
steamships to ascend
to the city, and its
foreign commerce is
extensive. Salem lias
large flour and woolen
mills. Astoria is the
center of the salmon-
fishing and canniugg.
industry, and shi{>^
much lumber.
CALIFORNIA. Bywfa^w
is California Iwrdered
Wliat tape on the Atlantic coaat is in nearly the same latitude as tli — ^
northern state boundary! Wliat Atlantic coast city is in nearly Ih ^
8anie latitude as the southern state bouiidarj-I (map, p. 56.) Coiu. ^
pare the area of tlio slalp with that of Now En^cland. What inountaii^c
ranges ari' in the state? What two rivers drain the California valley
Into wlial do they flow t Locate the capital; the chief city; thrtt^^
other cities in the central part of the state; two in the south.
California is nearly three times as large as any state ot^K
the Union east of the Mississippi River, and is exceedeilK^
in size by Texas only. It is one of the first states in tlu-"^
Union in the production of wool, wheat, and fruit, greailv
exceeding all others in the crops of grapes, plums, and
apricots. Oranges and lemons are raised in abundance.
California produces aliout oue fourth of the gold mined
in the United States, and a large part of the world's yield
of quicksilver.
Valuable himher is obtained from the redwood forests
in the northwestern part of the state. On the west slopes
of the Sierra Nevada are several small groves of a kind
of redwood, which contain some of the
uKist gigantic trees in the world.
Till' chief manufacturing industries
are flour and lumber milling, the tan-
ning of leather, wine making and fruit
preserving, shipbuilding, and the re-
fining of cane sugar brought from the
islands of the Pai'ific.
Son Francisco, one of the seven
gieatcst cities of the Union, and the
largest city on the Pacific sloi>e of the
American continent, lies on the pen-
insula between San Francisco Bay and
the Pacific Ocean. Itowes itsgrowth
chit'fly to tlie fine, deep harbor af-
forik'd by the large and beautiful bay.
The bay is nearly land-locked, being
connected with the oceaa only by a
COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. | and other buU<linK timber. Wheat and the hardier plants
,^ . , , 1 T- ■. 1 c. » ,1 .1.. T 1 . ' of the temperate zone ripen in southern Canada, though the
What country Iwrtlera ilieLiiileil btatea on iho north? In what zones , , ', iiimii- ni/^r.
IB Canada I Through how many deRrees of kiitudc dops it extendi ' Winters are long and cohh TIio basin of the Saskatch-
Through liow many .leETTfea of longitude ! How does it conipnre with ewan is the chief whoat-gl'OwUlg region, and the penin-
sula between Lake Huron and Lake
Erie is a fruit and dairy region.
In the eohl, uninhabited regions
of tlie uorth, caribou and fur-bearing
animals are abundant. The coast
fisheries of southern Canada are
among the most extensive in the
world. Cod, herring, and mackerel
are the chief catch in the eastern,
and salmon in the western coast
waters.
The mineral product is aboutequal
in value to that of the fisheries.
Gold, silver, and copper are mined
in the western part, and coal in both
east and west. Nickel also is a valu-
able mineral pi-oduct.
Although Canada is about as lai^e
as the United States, the population
is not so gi-eat as that of New York state. In what part
the main body of
United States in extent
of latitude and longitade t
Do degrees of longitude in
ccDtral Canada and cen-
tral United States contain
the same namber of mites T
Compare the two countries
in area.
What great bay ia in
Csoada t Compare it u-ith
the Gnlf of Mexico in posi-
tion, size, depth, and Dse*
fulness. What archipelago
is north of Canada t What
straitsepatates the eaatem
part of this archipelago
from the mainland T What
two peninsulas are on the
north coast of Canada I
What gulf is east of Can-
aCa ! What fonr largo is-
lands are bordered by the
Rocky Mountains, Canada.
off the
waters of this gulf I What peninsula I What Inrgf; isliind;
west coast of Canada t
Frtiiu the physical map of North Ameriea locati- tlie highlands of
Canada. Compare the width of tho western liighland with that of the
Rooky Mountain highland in the United Stales. Locnte the principal
mountain ranges. What plntt
is lowland? Trace the diWdo of the Hudson Bay slope (ji. 02). Name
tho principal river basins of that slope; of the Arctic slope; of the
Gulf of St. Iiawrence slope. Name the chief basins of the Pacific
al'^pe. In which of the bauns of Canada are there lai^e lakes t In
which are the largest lakes T
From the maps on p. 40 describe the climate and rainfall of eastern,
central, and western Canada.
So much snow falls on the western highland of Canada
tliat the higher parts of tho mountain ranges abound hi
glaciers. Nearly all the large rivers which rise in this re-
gion flow from the melting ends of glaciers. Many of tlie
siaow-topped mountains have precipitous sides, and their
lower slopes are covered with heavy evergreen forests, so
tbat this region is noted for its scenery.
Which side of the Laurentian plateau is highest f The
coast of Labrador is mainly i-ongh and rugged, but it
contains many good harbors. The greater part of the
pl»teau is bleak and unfit for cultivation.
The northern coast of Canada is so cold that neither
trees nor food plants can grow there. Farther south, a
Hroad forest belt stretches entirely across the continent,
tliough large parts of it have been injured by fire. In
tte southern part of this belt are valuable forests of pine
of Canada is the population most dense t (map, p. 49.)
Tlie fli-st white silllers in the St. Lawrence basin were Frenchmen,
. _ , . but thirteen years bef<)re tho United States was formed, Great Britain
the cast 1 Wliat part of Canada ! gained possession of Canada by war. British st'ttlers and tbeirdesoend-
ants now form the greHter part of the population, and their energy has
made of Canada the most prosperous part of the Western Continent, after
the United States. There are, however, many descendants of the old
French settlors still living in Canada. Most of them live in the lower St.
Lawrence valley, and many of them are in language, dress, and manners
■ -."■■-■Jp~ ^ ' 3", 7^".. --."■■pi
p^'f
^KO|
1
i
^,,^;&k.
""-^
^^^^^^," ttlSD'**''.
Fur trading poat in northern Canada.
94
much like the people of France a
hundred years apo. They belong
mainly to the Catholic Church, while
the greater part of the people of
EngUsli descent arc Piv)testant8. la
the region farther west there lire
uiany " half-bi'eeils" of mixed Fi-eiich
and Indian descent.
In the northern ])!irt nre n few
tbousftnd Eskimos and other ImlL-
ans. I (I the winter the Eskimos build
their huts of snow or of slones alr.ng
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
the (
, but i
they
grate inland to thi>r(;trioilS wlicrelbe
cnribon are abtmilant. The Imliaiis
are liuulersandtrapi>era. The ijatiii'
whieh tliey prociiru is valunhle cliietly
for Ihe fur. All thn>ugh this reiricm
the Hudson BayOonipauyhas estab-
lished tradinj; posts, wliere most of
the pelta are sold.
Although Ounnda remains a Brit-
ish possesion, the Freneh retain the
two small islands of St. I'iem- ami
Miquelon, south of Newfounilland, whieli tin
Point them out on the map.
The kingdom of Oreat Britain lias
of Canada to form a trovprnnn'iit, fn
»pi'imtt<^('
Hi.' mat
Parliament building, Ottawa.
Canadian affairs, soinetliiug like that of the United States.
There are 8e\eu provinces, siniihir to onr states, eaoli with
its local government, and a number of thinly settled (//.*-
tricts, somewhat like our territories, wliifh ti>i;ether liave a
single local government. Tlie people of eai-li province
and of all the districts together elect repfesi'iitiitives to a
ParlUiment, like our (,'ongress, wliich makes laws for the
whole Dominion. But instead of an elected presi.lent, as
in our countrj', Canada has a governor general appointed
by the monarch of Great Britain.
Where is the province of Prince Eil ward L-'Uuid f It is
tlio smallest and most thickly settled province. What i.-t
the name of its eapital I
Of what two natiH'aL divisioti-s is the province of A'wivi
Saitia formed f The fisheries of this proviueo are more
valuable than those of any
other. Most of the i^oal
mined in eastern CaiiarliL
comes from Nova ficotiji.
Name and locate the capital.
It is the chief Brilit-h iiavjil
station in North Ameriea.
From the i)rovince of .Vcw
Uniusirick lumber and ciintl
lisli ai-e exported. NaiiiejiUil
locate the capital. Si. John
is the largest city and tbe
chief i><nt.
By what waters are tlic?!^
three jirovinces burderal!
What province is north of
New Brunswick f Quebec is
.settled mainly l>y people of
French descent. In popu-
lation and Wealth it rauks
si'cond among the provinces <if Canada. The city of Que-
bec is till' oldest city in (.'aiiadn, and one of the oldest in
X'irlh Ann'rtca. The upper city is situatiMl on a Ligh
bluff overlooking the river, and is surrouiiiled by fertifi-
cations; tlie business part of the city lies without the
walls, ahmir Ih'' river front. AVhere is Montreal 1 Ofwin
sleam.shi]is ascend ihe river to its wharves. In winter,
when the I'ivej' au.l giilf are ice-locked, through what
American ciiy docs the ti'ade of Montreal pass f (p. 63.)
What proviijce boi'dcrs the (ireat Lakes? Oiilmo is
ihe most prosperous and wealthy province of Canada, ami
contains nearly halt' the population. Toronto isthecnjii-
tal. Wliere is it f The capital of the whole BoiaiDiou
is also in Ontario. What is its name f
In what great river basin is the province of Mamiohaf
What three districts lie mostly in the same basin! Vlia*
is the chief crop of these districts and this provinee*
^\^lat is the capital of Manitoba! It is the chief coitv-
f the
egii >ii.
The Citadel, Quebec.
COUNTRIES SOUTH OP THE UNITED STATES.
97
But few people live
iu Greeuland, and most
of these are Eskimos.
They are a cheerful
but iguorant people,
and live iv low, flitliy
hovels made of loose
stones, or sometimes
of blocks of snow and
iae. They live chiefly
J>v fishing aii<l liunt-
i I »g for sea animals,
U^^ing the flesli for
^VJ>od, tlie fur for cloth-
jxM e, »u*l the fat for
ft^-M-^l. Ou the southwest
^,^jr»ast there are two
^j ^^- tliree small trading
j5^^ -ttlements of white men from Dennmrk.
JCELAM) is ab(rat as largo as the state of
Xr :» <iiana. It is mostly a ruj!j;ged iilateau con-
t.tm^ iuing, in the north, many voli;auoes, several
<3^ TThich are active and cause frequent earth-
<:£■■_-«. Jikes. Most of the island is covered with
ttm ^e lava outflows from these volcanoes. Hot
sjz* -K-ings are numerous, and there are sev-
e^i-a-»l fine geysei-s. Parts of the ishitid aiT
»3<:> "^'ered with ice fields, and tho deoj) tiurds
of "the northern coast are often packed with
i<i^^ brought iu by the Arctic currents. The
Eskimo boy and dog.
southern coast, is mnch less broken, and is kept free from
ice by the warm currents from tho soutli.
The cUmate, though raw and moist, is moderated in the
south by winds from the ocean, and grass and vegetables
gi-ow well, though it is too cold for grain, and there are but
few trees. There are very few native land mammals, but
manj' birds, and the coast waters alround in excellent fish.
Iceland was discovered and settled by Northmen from
Eurepe long before Columbus discovered America, and
their descendants stiil Hve there, chiefly in tho southern
part of the island. They are thrifty, intelligent, well-
educated people, and are employed chiefly in raising sheep,
cattle, and horses,
and in fishing.
The people choose
the membei-s of tho
Congi'esR,orv4 /( Ai»9,
which meets at the
town of lieikiavik to
make the laws ; but
the governor is ap-
pointed by the King
of Denmark.
Supplemental Work.
Read " My Arctic Jonr-
oat," by Josephine D.
Peary, or " Farthest
North," by Frid^of
Nansen. Read or recite
" The- Skeleton in Ar-
mor," by Lougfellow^
Stone hut, Gieenluid.
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES.
MEXICO.
lat eonntry borders the United States on the south t Throogh how
sy degrees of latitude and longitude does it extend t Compare it
_a the United States in size. In what zones is Mexico 1 What waters
r**-**:"'«3er it t What peninsulas does it contain t From the map on p. 44
IJ^^^^^te the lowlands of Mexico. What part of the country is highland f
, ^KZDe and locate the chief mountain range. Are there many lai^e rivers
"* ^lexioo 1 Name the two largest that drain portions of the countrj".
Il'he surface of the Rocky Mountain highland in Mexico
^^ <iuite similar to that of the great plateau region in the
United States. It is l)ordered on the east and west by
^**-c>xmtain ranges con-esponding to
tli«^ Rocky and the Cascade Moun-
^insjbut thewesteraMexicanrauge -^
^s tnuch higherand more continuous
t-lia,!! the eastern. In the north tho
plateau is about three fourths of a
Qiile high, but it rises gradually to
*'^^ce that elevation in the south.
Iq this higher portion of the plateau are
^^^Qy great Toloanio cones. One of them,
*4o\iBt Orixabft, is about three and one half
miles high. Several of the volcanoes are active, and earthquakes are
not uncommon throughout Mexico.
Owing to the trepical position of Mexico there is little
difference between the temperature of summer and of
winter ; but because of the variation in elevation there is a
groat difference in the temperature of different regions.
Tiie lowlands are always hot; the plateau is always tem-
perate; and tlie mountain region, more than IJ miles liigh,
is cool or cold, some of the higher peaks being always
snow-clad. The seasons of Mexico are the wet and the
dry. Nearly all the rain falls dur-
ing the summer months. Why 1
Tiie northern part has very little
rain at any time. Whyf
Plants and animals of both the
North and the South Americim re-
gions are found in Mexico. Men-
tion some of tho animals {pp. 30,
31). In the lowlands mahogany,
rosewood, logwood, rubber trees,
medicinal plantB,and vanilla growin
UNITED STATES.
THE PACIFIC SECTION.
What three Btat«B compose this seotion 1 What great moantain ranges
traverse its central partt What part of tbe region receives ample rain-
fall T (p. M.) What parts are quite
dry T What have you learned of
1 the Pacific coast T
The Sierra Nevada and tlie
Cascade Mountains are about
as high as the Rocky Moun-
tains, but they seem much
higher and grander wlien
viewed from the west, be-
cause they rise from lowland
valleys instead of from a hi;;h
plateau.
These great ranges contairi some
of the grandest nioimlain scenery in
the country. The higher peaks of
both ranges reach the Ihnit ut' per-
petoal snow, and their upper vallej's coutaio small glaciers. There are
deep gorges and oanyous in the western sliipe of the Sierra Nevada.
One of these, the Yosemite valley, is especially noted for its magnificent
scenery. The Cascade Moaulains are notei) for their high volcanic cones,
chief among vhich are Mount Shasta and Mount Rainier.
West of the SieiTa Nevada and Cascade Mountains there
ia comparatively little difference between summer and
winter temperatures. East of the mountains, however,
the climate is much drier, witli hotter summers and colder
winters. The rainfall west of the mountains occurs almost
entirely during the winter months. Why!
In the north the rainfall is much heavier than in the south, and enough
falls in the Columbia valley east of tbe Cascade ftlouutaiua for aiiecess-
fnl farming. In the south, however, irrigation is necessary in many lo-
calitieB. North of Poiot Conception, chilly and foggy weather is com-
mon near the coast, but soiitli of that point the weather is warm and
delightful throughout most of tbe year-
Agriculture is the principal industry in the valley.'*
west of the great mountain ranges, and wheat, grapes,
and other fruit are the mont impi>rtjuit crops. Much wheat
is also raised east of tbe Cascade Moinituins in the Coliim-
bia valley. Great
quantities of barley
and hops are also.
grown in this sec-
tion. In the drier
r^ions, and on the
mountain slopes,
cattle and sheep
raising are impor-
tant occupations.
The wool ehp of this
section is veiy large.
"What part of the
eection is wooded!
^map, p. 59.) These
■forests are the heav-
iest in the United
States. Those in
the central part of
the section are composed chiefly of great redwoods, while
farther north the fir, or " Oregon pine," is the most valu-
able tree. In these regions lumbering is a great industry.
Gold mining is extensively
carried on in the west slope
of the Sierra Nevada, which
is one of the richest gold fields
in the world. Much quick-
silver is mined in the central
part of this section, and con-
siderable coal in the north.
Ages ago grams of gold were
deposited with other detritus in the
flood plains of many of tbe moan-
tain streams Theie gold-bearing
gravel banks are dissolved by squirt-
ing powerful streams of water
against them, and the gold is col-
lected from the muddy water which
flows away; the process being called
also mined directly from veins in the
Hydraulic gold mining, California.
Gathering giap«s, CalifomU.
hydraulic mining. Much gold i
solid rock.
How does the density of population in this section
compare with that in the Plateau Section! Although
the population, especially in the great valleys, is greater
than on the Rocky Mountain liighland, the section is still
quite thinly settled. The whole section does not contain
so many jicople as the city of New York. About half
the people ai-e foreign-
ers, mostly German and
Irish, but there are also
many Chinese.
Notice on the railroad
map (p. 60) that the
section is traversed by
railroads from north to
south along the line of
the Sound and California
valleys. Most of the rail-
roads which enter the
section, however, are the
great transcontinental
lines which cross the
Rocky Mountaiu high-
land from the Missis-
sippi valley. In what
two parts of the section do these trans-
continental lines converge!
The coast is closely bordered by the
C'oast Ranges, and has few bays and
harbors. The ranges are broken in the
north, however, by Puget Sound and the
Ci'lumbia River, and in the central part
by the Bay of San Francisco. These
iiidtjnt-atitms alford safe harborage to
file largest vessels, and from them
almost all the foreign commerce of our
Pacific coast is carried on. Why, then, do
the railroads converge where they do !
Yosemite Falls.
90
PAKTS OF THE EARTH.
WASHINGTON. By what is Waskin^n bordered t What parts
of the state lie in the Columbia valley T What sound is in the north-
westt By what strait is it joined to the Pacific f What part of the
state is mountainous 1 Locate the capital ; two
other cities in the west ; one in the east. - —
The western part of the state is well
covei'sd with eone-beaiing forests,
which are its chief wealth. The largest
lumber mills in the world are along
Piiget SouikI. The fertile farming
lands in the Sound valley and east
of the Cascade Mountains yield large
crops of wheat, hops, an<:l fruits.
Coal is mined iu the north more ex-
tensively than elsewhere in the stv-
Lumbering, Washingtoa.
tiou. The salmon (ishories of the Columbia add mur-h to
the wealth of the state.
Seattle is in the roal and hiraber region. Tacomn is at
the western end of a transooiitiueutal railway. Spokane
has a fine water power and many mannfat'tories,
OREGON. By what is Oregon bordered t
Name its three mountain rauges. How does
eastern Oregon compare with eastern Wash-
ington in elevation, i^lope, and climate i What
part of tlio state ia quite dry t How does thi;
map indicate this ? Name the capitnl; one other
city on the Willamette ; one at the mouth of the
Columbia.
In the fertile Sound valley great
quantities of wheat, oats, hops, and
fruit are raised, and mtich fine wheat
for export is grown by the aid of ir-
rigation in northeast Oregon. The
wool clip is large, and matiy cattle are
raised. Magnificent forests of "Ore-
gon pine' cover much of the western
half of the state, and lumbering is an
important industry. Glold mining is
carried on chiefly in the mountains of the southwes — i
and the northeast. The Columbia River salmon fisheries -s
of Oregon are among the most valuable in the world.
_ _ Portland is tli^ «e
largest city in the*. _«e
Sound valley. Th^ jie
building of jettiei-^ -^s
at the month of tlitE* «ie
Columbia has made* Se
it possible for large^-i^e
steamships to ascend£j» d
to the city, and its^^ :1s
foreign commerce issi^ is
extensive. Salem has j^ jis
largellourandwooleii *.«»
mills. Astoria is the -e^ je
center of the salmon- — *'
fishing and canning "T^S
industry, and ships ^■•■
much lumber.
A fisb-wbeel, Columbia River. CALIFORNIA. By what * ■*
is Cahfomia bordered I ^
Whntcftiieon ibe Atltmiic foast is in nearly the same latitude as the ■^^'
northern slate bnumlarj-! Wliat Alliintic coast city is in nearly the '^
same latitude as the sontheni stale boundary? (map, p. 56.) Com- "■
pare ihe area fif the slnle with Ihat of New England. What mountain ^
i-anges are in the slate I What two rivers drain tlie California valley 1 *
Into what do tliey flow! Locate the capital; the cliief city; Ihri-e -
other cities iu the central part of the state; two in the south.
California is nearly thi'ee times as large as any state of
tlie Union i/ast of the Mississippi River, an<l is exceeded
ill size by Texiis only. It is one of the first states in the
Union in tlie produi'tiou of wool, wheat, and fruit, greatly
exceeding all otliers in the crops of grapes, plums, and
apricots. Oranges and lemons are raised iu abundance.
Cahfornia proiluces about one fourth of the gold miued
in the United States, and a large part of the world's yield
of quicksilver.
Valuable lumber is obtained from the redwood forests
in the northwestern part of the state. On the west slopes
of the SieiTa Nevada are several small groves of a kind
of redwood, which contain some of the
most gigantic trees in the world.
Till' chief manufacturing industries
are flour and hunber milling, the tan-
ning of leatlier, wine making and fruit
preserving, shipbuilding, and the re-
fining of cane sugar brought from the?*^
islands of tlie Pacifii'.
Sat) FniiH'isfo, one of the seve^^^,
greatest cities of the Union, and tl^.. <.
largest city on the Pacific slope of tl ~*. o
American continent, lies on the pe^Tt^-
insula between San Francisco Bayai-^* *\
tlie Pacific Ocean. It owes its grow "^ ^i
cliit'fly to the fine, deep harbor e3b^ *'-
forded by the large and beautifid ba^y-
The bay is nearly land-locked, heitJ^
connected with the ocean only by ^
/
UNITED STATES.
91
comparatively narrow strait, called the G-olden Gate, just
Dorth of the city.
The city waa foonded by Spaoisb Franciscan monks from Mexico,
who established here the Missioii of San Francisco in the same year that
the English colonists on the Atlantic coast declared their independence
of Great Britain. A small Spanish settlement sprang up about the mis-
sion, and for nearly seventy-flve years continued under the control of
Mexico. It then came into the possession of the United States. The
discovery of gold in Oahfomia at about the same time brought Ihouaands
of people to San Francisco, and it immediately became the most impor-
tAnt commercial center on the Pacific coast, a position it has since been
ablo to retain because of the <'xcellonce of its harbor and the ease with
whicli it IS reached from nearly all parts of the Pacibc coast r g on
An extensive ocean commerce is earr 1 on th Japan ( 1 ma Aus
tralia, and the Pacifio Islands, and by »av of the IstI m is E Panami
or around Cape Horn, with Europe and the east c i t of t! e Unite 1
States. The heaviest commerce, however a overland I \ tl transcon
tinental railroads. More than half of the manufa tunng of t) e tate i
eentereil in this city, the eliief industries be ng u),dr ret lunt, no 1 tl
manufacture of clotliing and mining macl iuer>
Los Angeles^ tlio commercial center of soHtliein Cali-
fornia, is in the civango-growiiig region. OaklamI, on tlu-
opposito side of the bay from Siin Francisco, is a great
suburb anil railroad terminus of that city, as Jersey City
is of Xew York. Sacramento is in a fertile agricultural
ri'gion. The city is protectetl from floods by levees. San
Jose anil Stockton are important trade centers. San Dieijo
lias a gootl harbor.
ALASKA. Wbere is Alaska* What country is east of it T What
waters are north, west, and south ! By what is it separated from Asia t
How wide is this strait t What part is most mountainous T What great
river traverses the country T To what nation does Alaska belong T
Alaska is almost as large as Washington, Oregon, Cali-
fornia, and Texas taken together, and yet it does not con-
^
"»ain so many people as the city of Oakland. On the map
■*~>i North America (p. 44) compare the latitude of Alaska
"^vith that of Greenland. Can you give one reason why
S30 few people live in Alaskn t
The southern coast of Alaska is very rough and moun-
tainous. Some of the peaks of these mountain ranges are
over three miles high ; they are the highest in North
-America. These moimtains prevent the warm, moist winds
of the Pacific from reaching the interior, which is conse-
quently very cold during the greater part of the year.
Part of the interior is covered with open forests, but much
of it is a bleak tundra. The southern slopes of the moun-
tains are much warmer, receive abundant rains, and are
covered with forests. The summits of the mouutaius are
always snow-clad. Great glaciers creep down most of the
larger valleys, many of them extending to the sea.
Nearly all of the people live near the southern coast.
A few of the inhabitants are white men, but most of the
A street in Sitka, Alaska.
people are Eskimos and Indians. Some liardy vegetables
grow ill this region, but it is too damp for grain.
I Tilt? chief occupations are hunting fur-bearing animals,
! fishing for cod and salmon, and gold mining.
Where are the Pribilof Islands T Thoasands of fur seals go to these
islands every sunmier and establish rookeries, or nurseries, where their
young are bom and taugtit to swim. Most of our sealskin garments are
ma<le from the skins of seals killed on or near these islands. The sea
otter, the marten or sable, the black bear, and the silver fox are also
killed in Alaska for their fur. Gold is found in many places in Alaska.
Tliere are rich Helds near Cape Nome and on the Koyukuk River. A
rich gold field is on the Klondike, a branch of the Yukon River in
Canada, just across the Alaskau boundary, and many white miners have
gone through Alaska to found Dawson aud other mining towns in that
region. But mining in that latitude is very costly and dangerous because
of the ngor of the climate and the scarcity of food.
Alaska lias not yet a regular territorial government, but
is ruled by a governor and several commissioners ap-
pointed by the Federal government at Washington. The
chief settlements are Jiiiieau, a mining town, and Sitka,
the residence of the governor, on Baranof Island.
Hawaii, Samoa, p. 153. Puerto Rico, p. 100. Philippines, p. 142.
Supplemental Work. Read " The Young Nimrods in North America,"
by T. W, Knox ; " Threo Vas.'ar Girls at Home," by Lizzie W. Champney j
" The Pacific Coast Scenic Tour," by Henry T. Finck, or " The Valley
of the Yosemite," in Sheldon's Fifth Reader. Read or recite one selection
on these statics from Longfellow's " Poems of Phices," Vol. 29. Describe
one city nr r^cene in this section as fully as San Francisco is described.
Write next day a reproduction of the description given by one of your
schoolmates. Read "Our Western Archipelago," by Henry M. Field;
"A Woman's Trip to Alaska," by Mrs. S. M. Collis.
COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
What countrj- borders tlie United Slates on ihe nortli f In wliat zones
is Canada t Through bow many dcfrrees at laiitude dofs it i-xlendT
^Tlirough how many deffryes of longitude 1 How docs it ronipnre with
■the main body of the
TJnite<i States iu eit«nt
«if latitude and longitude t
J>o degrees of lon^tude in
4»ntral Canada &nA cen-
-Cral United States contain
Xhf! same nnmber of miles T
Compare the two countries
in area.
What great bay is in
panada t Compare it with
tte Gnlf of Mexico in posi-
tion, size, depth, and use-
fulness. What archipelago
i0 north of Canada ) What
strait separates the eastern
part of this archipelago
from the mainland! What
tvFO peninsulas are on the
north coast of Canadal
Wlutt gulf is east of Can-
ada T What four large is-
lands are bordered by the
Rocky Hountaini, Canada,
1
waters of this giilft What pcninsulaT Wliaf lanrt' islands are off the
weat coast of Canada!
BVoin the physical map of North America locale tlio Lighlnnds of
Canada. Compare the width of the western highland with that of the
Kooky llountain highland in the United States. Locate the principal
mountain ranges. Wliat plateau is in the east t What {>»rt of Canada
is lowland T Trace the diride of the Hudson Bay slope (p. 92). Name
ttie principal river basins of that slope; of the Arctic slope; of the
9ulf of St. Lawrence slope. Name the chief basins of the Pacific
■lupe. In which of the liasins of Canada are there largo lakes t In
*"hieh are the largest lakes T
Prom the maps on p. 4() describe the cUmatc and rainfall of eastern,
central, and western Cnnada.
So much snow fails on the westwix highland of Canada
that the higher parts of the monntain i-aiiges abound in
glaciers. Nearly all the large rivers which rise in this re-
gion flow from the melting ends of glaciers. Many of the
snow-topped mountains have precipitous sides, and their
lower slopes are covered with heavy evergreen forests, so
that this region is noted for its sceneiy.
^hich side of the Lanrentian ]>hiteau is highest ! The
•^ast of Labrador is mainly roiigli and rugged, but it
•^ntains many good harbors. The greater part of the
plateau is bleak and unfit for cultivation.
The northern coast of Canada is so cold that neither
trees nor food plants can grow there. Farther south, a
"foad forest belt stretches entirolj' across the continent,
tuongh large parts of it have been injured by fire. In
'^e southern part of this belt are valuable forests of pine
and other buUdiug timber. Wheat and the hardier plants
of the temperate zone npen in southern Canada, though the
winters are long and cold. The basin of the Saskatch-
ewan is the chief wheat-growing region, and the penin-
sula between Lake Huron and Lake
Erie is a fruit and dairy region.
In the cold, uninhabited regions
of the north, caribou and fur-bearing
animals are abundant. The coast
fisheries of southern Canada are
among the most extensive in the
world. Cod, herring, and mackerel
are the chief catch iu the eastern,
and salmon in the western coast
waters.
The mineral product is aboutequal
in value to that of the fisheries.
Gold, silver, and copper are mined
iu the western part, and coal in both
east and west. Nickel also is a valu-
able mineral product.
Although Canada is about as lai^e
as the United States, the population
is not so great as that of New York state. In what part
of Canachi is the population most dense t (map, p. 49.)
The first white si'tllers in the St. Lawrence basin were Frenchmen,
but thirt«<.'n years before the United States was formed, Great Britain
gaine{l possession of Canada by war. British settlers and their descend-
ants now form the greater part of thi> population, and their energy has
made of Canada the most prosperous part of the Western Continent, after
the United States. There are, however, many descendants of the old
French settlers still living in Canada. Most of them live iu the lower St.
Lawrence valley, and many of them are in language, dress, and d
Far trading post in noithem Canada.
94
muoh like tlie peopk- of France a
hundred yoars ajro. They belimg
mainly to the Catholic Church, while
the greater part of the people of
English descent are Protestants. In
the reffiou farther woat thei'c ure
many " half-breeds" of mixed b'ruueli
and Indian descent.
In the novthern part are a ft'w
thousand Eskimos and otlior Indi-
nns. Iti the winter lUi; Eskimos build
their liuts of siiow or of stmies :ilong
the coast, hut in summer they mi-
grate inland to the retrions \vlien> the
earihoii arc n)iund;iut. The Indians
are liuuters and trappers. The ki»"ii^
which they procure is valualile chiuHy
for the fur. All through this re;jion
the Hudson Bayt'onijMinylias vslah-
lislied tradin;; posts, wliere most of
the pelts are sold.
Altliou}fh Canada remains a Brit-
ish possei^ion, thc^ French retain tlie
two small islands of St. I'ieiTc and
Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, n
Point them out on the map.
The kingdom of Urent Britain lias
of Canada to form a provorninont, fi
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
Wharves at Houtceal.
pO nil if to
V tho ma
d tlic po
nagonici
scconil amiiiij; the proviii
)«.■(■ is llii' uMfsi city in Oana.la,
Xortii America. Tln' iippor irit;
l.lnlf .)v<Tl<>okinK tlif rivi'i
valuable than those of any
othef. Most of the (;cia,\
mined in eastern Cana.<.\a
I'onies fi'oni Nova Scot 5a.
Name and locate the cajiit «\.
It is the chief British nn\. —a\
station in Nortli Amenca_
From the province of 2C~.~^ir
lirmisirkk lumber and eiu- cJ
li.-;h ai'(^ exported. Name a^^nl
loi^ate the capital. St. Jo^Hiii
is the largest city and t lie
chief port.
By wliat waters are the "p
three provinces bordered ^E
AVhat iirovinee is nortli rif
New Brunswick f Qtirhec is
settled mainly liy people — — ;>f
French descent. In pop il-
lation and w.'alth it riml=JiS
.f Canada. The eity of Qu e-
d one of the oldest triii
is situated on a hit^s_ll
lid is surrounded by forti^t fi
\
rt of the city lies without tL
it. Where is Montreal ? Ocea j
ver to its wharves. In winte
jrulf are ice-lwked, through whie
rations; the
walls, aloiii: 111." I'iver f
steamships ascend llic
when the river and jrulf are ice-l.x'ked, through whiE:-:=-»'
American eity does the trade of Jlontreal i)assf (p. ()3. ^^-1
Wliat province borders llii! C>reat Lakes! Ontario it i*
lhe most prosperous and wealthy province of Canada, aii'»_ *;
contains nearly half (he po]inlatit)u. Toronto is the capi K *
tal. Wliere !■? it J The cajiital of the whole Domiuior* "*'
is also in t)ntario. What is its name T
In what great river basin is the province oi Manitoba ^^
What three districts lie mostly in the same basin t What*" -*
is the chief (;rop of these ilistricts and this provineef*
^y]m^ is the capital of Manitoba T It is the chief coni-^
mcrcial center of the rcfiion.
Parliament building, Ottawa.
Canadian affairs, something like that of the United States.
There are seven 2>rovinces, similar to our states, each with
its local government, and a number of thinly settled dis-
tricts, somewhat like our tenitories, which tofrether have a
single local government. The i»eoplo of each province
and of all the districts together elect rejiresentatives to a
Parliament, like our Congress, which makes laws for the
whole Dominion. But instead of an elected president, as
in otir country, Canada has a governor general appointetl
by the monarch of Groat Britain.
"Where is the province of Friiier Edward Island? It is
the smallest and most thickly settled province. What is
the name of its capital f
Of what two natural divisions is the province of A'ocd
Scotia formed t The fisheries of this province are more
The CiUdel, QuetMC.
COUNTBIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES.
95
What province borders on the Pacific t This is the
largest of the provinces. Gold and coal mining are the
chief eniploymenta. Name and locate the capital Van-
couver, the largest town on the mainland,
is an important commercial center.
The chief wealth of the districts in
northem Canada is derived from the fur
trade. The district of Yukon, however,
is moi-e important for the rich gold mines
in the Klondike region. What city is
the center of this region 1
Most of the trade of Canada is with
the United States and Great Britain.
Her exports are largely to Great Britain ;
3ier imporis largely from the United
States. From Montreal, from St. John,
and from Halifax steamship lines run to
^European ports, and from Vancouver
there are steamship linos to Japan and
.Australia. From Montreal to Vancouver
"there is a great transcontinental rail-
ix>ad, connecting by branch roads with the chief northern
<;ities of the United States. This road is shorter than
«:iny of the northern transcontinental roads in the United
Stiites, and crosses the western highlands by lower passes,
rrherefore, besides the foreign trade of the Dominion
itself, considerable traffic between Europe and Asia crosses
CJauada.
The island of Newfoundland, together with the Labra-
<aor coast, forms a British colony by itself, and is not a
part of the Dominion of Canada. The interior of the
island is a wilderness. Tlie chief occupation is fishing,
and a large part of the population of the island live along
the coast of the mainland during the fishing season. What
is the capital of Newfoundland f
Supplemental Work. Read " The Story of Canada," by J. Q. Boa-
rinot; "Zigzag Journeys in Acadia and New France," by Hesekiab
Batterworth; " Great- (jrandraother'M Girls in New France," by Liizie
W. Champuey j ohapters 40 and 41 of " Carpenter'H (leographical Reader,
Horth Ainerica." Read or recite one selectioii aboat Canada from
Looigfellow's " Poems of PlarOee," VoL 30.
DANISH AMERICA.
A ITewfoimdlaiid fishing achooaer.
Wh&t two islands rise from the continental platean between Europeand
Americal (mapa,pp.8and IS.) In what hemisphere is Qreenland ; most
of Iceland? Are these islands
nearer to America or to Europe 1
Whicb of them is the larger t
How does Greenland seem to rank
among the islands of the world
in azet
GREENLAND. Neariythe
whole of Greeidand is cov-
ered Irandreds, possibly
thousands, of feet deep by
a continental glacier. It
is only near the coast that
the surface of the land is
not covered with ice. It
is thought that Greenland
may not be a single island,
but may consist of several
islands connected by the
ice cap. What sort of
a coast has the southern half of Gi-eenlandt Judging
from tlie coast line, do you tliink the part of the continen-
tal plateau occupied by Greenland has recently sunk or
risen t Some people believe that it is the great weight of
the ice sheet that has caused Greenland to sink ! In places
the ice sheet extends into the sea, forming long ice cliffs.
Icel>ergs broken from these cliffs render the navigation of
the Atlantic dangerous at certain seasons as far south as
the neighborliood of Newfoundland. In southern Gi-een-
land the ice sheet reaches the sea only at the heads of
the numerous long, naiTow fiords, between which a nar-
row strip of high, rocky coast is not iee-covei-ed.
On this coast region grows a scanty Arctic vegetation,
chiefly mosses and lichens, with here and there patches of
grass, and, during the short summer, some flowering
plants. There are also a few stunted trees, but they rarely
grow higher than a man's head. The principal wild animals
of the land are the musk ox, the reindeer, the arctic fox,
and the polar bear. The coast waters are frequented by
seals, walruses, whales, and fish, besides millions of eider
duc^ and other aquatic birds.
HOntmorency Falli (near Qtul>ec) In vintei.
Tiavelins on the ice cap in Greenland.
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
Drying coflee, Mexico,
thetleiDscfnrestH, jiiiii i-ii'r, sii.i^Mri-ajit', tuluici-t
fruits are cultiviitctl.iis wi'II as llio i-assava. I'r
■which tliu iintivcs niaki' fiiriiia m.^al lor lln'
Bisiii hemp, ov liencqui'ii, of w
are made. On tlie iiiouiitaiii sloji
of oak, pino, anil ntluT ttvi's (.I'tlu- ti'nii»Tati?
the lower, warmer slopes eott'i-e is cullival''!!.
teaus ^1-aiii ami lieuiis are the eliit'f i-n>)»s. M
Spanish rale the people Tel)elled and made their oonntrr
independent. Sim-f thi'ii Jli'xi<-o lias liad a govenimei
mod.-Ied after tliat <.f tlie Tnit.'d States. Tlu'rei.ublie e.. in-
sists lit' twenty-sfvt'n .slaU's. two ti-rri lories, and a fe<lei-.Bil
district, like tin- Distri.t cf (_'olunil.ia. ALunt one fifth »..{
the peo])lf iivt' wliiii-, nmsily descendants of Sjianish s(^ — t-
Hits; nearly one half are i.t' mixed Spani.sll and Indii -t»u
l.loo<l; and the rest arepm-e Indians. Most of the laml is
owned hy the white j.enple. Many of the Indiams are 1 a-
I'l-rei-s ill till' mine.';, ov on ilie stock "raiiehe.s," or fai-n^^^.
Nearly all M-xieaiis are ( atliolies.
The mj.niitaeiures of Mexieo are mainly cotton clotli. ]._ -a-
l eartlieiiware I'-ir home nse; Iml llie Indians mai— — *■■
, hlaiikeis and oniani.'ntaifeatiiet- and h-ather work by hail.* A
j Th.- torei-n cinnien-e is ehiellv with the Vnite-J Stat-- -- 'n
j l.oli, l.y seaaii.i hy the several lines of railn.a.l wliicli ci «: u-
, neet tile jilal.-au re.i^ion with the raih-oad system of tli*. *i''
, L'nited Staie>.
■ity .if .V>:nrn is located in the federal distrirr - ^-t.
Ir is tlie capital and lariresi city of the repnl-lic, an* »-
is linilt in a jrreal liasin-shaped deiire.ssioii of the i)lateaiK-..J U-
cousiderahle
otTee, Sisal hemj
plant is tlic
A chnracteristie Music;
from till' swptit Mip of w
pulque, wliii'h is llii'ir fiiv
yields thi< IJisiil Leuip.
In the drier portions of the jilati'an tlie rai-ii
horses, and slieepisan imimrtaiit industry, and
and hides are exported.
The mines of Mexieo are its <;liief weallli. What
erais are found in the western hijihland of tlie U
St^ates f Mexieo is one of tin' «reat siher-produeinfi: <
tiios of the worM, and tliis metal and its ore form the
exports. Smaller <|uantities of ffold, lead, and eoppe
ftlsfj exported, as well as the lieantiful stone called <
which is nseil for inferior deeoi-ation.
Longl.ff..r..Aiii..Hf;.w-;.s.--.!
Jli^xii-.), iTilli-il Aztei-s, hii.l mh
Tlii-y bail ft.riiio.1 a coiirc-d-
ersu^y, iiml Vi\vt\ in puetiloH
built »i «h)Tii'. ciillivati'il ionx
Ity the iiiil "f irii{t»ti"n. wore
ormimciit^ nf ■.'"''l. ii'i'l km^iv
K(init^tliin<7 'if ivoi'kiiif; ot\\w
Notlonfrafti-rthedi.'i-
covery of America a
Hpanianl named Coilez
lauded in M.'xico, sunk
his ships so that his sol-
<Hers mijrlit not return,
and eomjnered Mexico
for Spain. After about
three hiiuilred vears of
izi-dliy whitf nifii, (he Imlim
lo-i] tu'iirly to the !<tii<!(' iif i
Silver smeltery, Mexico.
' which .-onlains several lar-e lakes. Tlie sewa<r
I city and the lii.di-waler overllow of tlie lakes are eon-
! veyed out of tin- basin by a drainaj,'e canal forty niiles ■=
I loiifT, wliich for six miles of its length oeeujues a fun- —
i nel ihroiiuli ili,. Mirromi'liiii: nioiintains. Most of tlie — ,-
btiildin^^s are hnv, an<l the .iweli
injjs are built around courtyanLT-: — ^
ornamenti'd with llowi-r jrarden — ■ ^^^
ami paved with stone. KailriwL .^
coiuieet the city with ihe rail]M;L , j
system of the T'niti'd Stati'.s.
' AVlleie is i;i-hli>f H.-re are ].l-. .^
diieed tlie most important niaiiii-
t'ai-liires of Mexico, aniouir Tlvr-m
tlie famous Mexican blank.-ts.
Nearly all llie Mexican mivx: i>
(luarne.l near I'uebla. AVliat is <1"; !
ehief Atlainic seaport of Mexi* " ' '
li is connected by j-ailroad w'ir^'
Ihe city .if :Mexieo. and about t«'"
Market place, city of Mexico. tliirds of ihe foreign trade JT'"-''-*^
100
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
Plowing in Caba.
half of this being in the single island of Cuba, whieli is
nearly as large as tlie state of New York or Pennsylvania.
The larger islandsare
forest - covered. Tlie
vegetation varies, as
in Mexico and Central
America, with the alti-
tude. The most valu-
able product of the is-
lands is sugar catie.
About one fourth of
all the cane sugar used
in the world comes from
the West Indies, and by
far the greater part of
it from Cuba, though it
is the most important
export of nearly every
one of the islands. To-
bacco, known as Havana k'af, is anotln^' rrop for which
Cuba is specially noted. What cities of the rnite.1 States
manufacture much Cuban tobacco I (p. 81.) Other impor-
tant exports of tlie islands are coffee, cacao beans, fresh
fruit (bananas, pineappleei, limes, oranges, and eocoanuts),
and cabinet and dye woods. Excellent iron ore is also ex-
ported to the United States from southeastern Cuba, and
asphalt from Trinidad. Find this island. Coarse sjioiiges
are obtained from the sponge fisheries of the Bahamas, and
on some of these islands much salt is obtained by evapti-
rating sea water.
About how many people live in the West ludies ) (p. 157.)
Which state of our country contains about the same popu-
lation T The Bahamas, which are scarcely more than coral
reefs, are very thinly peopled ; in Cuba the population is
moderately dense; the rest of the islands are densely peo-
pled. Which islands of tlio West Indies formerly belonged
to Spain t (p. 49.) By far the greater part of the white pop-
ulation of the whole chain live in these two islands, where
there are nearly twice as many whites as negroes. In al-
most all the other islands the negroes are much more
numerous than the whites, and in Haiti nearly all tlie peo-
ple are of the black race. In several of the islands owned
by Great Britain laborers have been brought from China
and southern Asia to work on the plantations.
Cuba and Puerto Rico embrace about hr^\(
the aroa of Ihn Wost Indies. Tiie govemi-
uient of these islaud.s is controlled by t^ke
United States. The former Spanish govei n-
nient was so unfavorable to the colonists tlk- at
they were frequently at war with the motli^ er
country, and the great natural wealth of t^Hie
islands was Imt partly developed. Name t^Be
capital of each island. Havana is the lii^nr-
gest city in the West ludies, and the grc- - at
exporting point for gugai- and tobacco. Maci:^y
Sugar mill, Cuba.
cigars and cigarettes are made in tliat city for export-^— rt.
Santiago <le Cuba is also a large city, and exports ironiM: <nn
oro and copper.
The island of Haiti includes nearly one third of the are^^3ea
of the chain, and consists of two independent negro re->^»-e-
publics. Name them. Years ago Haiti was a FrenchC "fz^li
colony, and a form of the French language is used hj^^my
the negro inhabitants. Santo Domingo, however, was rt a
Spanish colony, and the Spanish language still prevails 1 il*
in that part of the island.
Nearly one sixth of the area of the chain belongs two*'
Great Britain. Find Jamaica. Trinidad, and the little!^ t''
island of Barbados. They are by far the most important r* *'
of the British AVest Indies. Barbados is the most densely ^-C'
settled island of the whole chain, and exports much sugar. ''*
Find Gttiiddiipe and Martinique. They are French pos- — *
sessions, nwl are the largest islands of the Lesser Antilles, «-
after Trinidad.
Sevend small islands of tho Lesser Antilles belong to ^
the European kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands,
and sevi'ial near the northern coast of South Ameiica are
fiai't of the rcjmblic of Venezuela,
Supplemental Work.
"The Boy Travellers m I
Central Aiiierica and Mi'xii
mas in the West In<lies,"
teai! " Thf Hlory "f Sli-sieo," by Susan Hale;
exico." by Thos. W. Knos \ " A Winter in
>," by Helen J. Sanborn ; " At Last : a Cbrist-
ehnptera 42, 43. and 44 of
Sorting apongM in the Bahamas.
" Carpenter's Geographical Render, North America." S«ad or recite a
selection froiu Longfellow'ti " Poems of Plaoee," Vol. 30, about southeni
North America.
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS.
Size. Througrh how many degrrees of latitiuk; does North America
extend? Through how immy <lejjrrt*es of longitude f Wlien it is mid-
night in the Pribilof Islands, what time is it in eastern Greenland; in
Newfoundland f
Coast. Name the chief seas and bays of the grand division ; the chief
peninsulas; the chief islands. Compare Greenlau<l au<l Cuba in size; in
surfac»e; in cUmata Compare Newfoundland and Vancouver. Compare
Florida and Lower California in position; in latitude; in climate; in
formation. Compare Hudson Bay and the (tulf of Mexico. Compare
the Chesapeake and San Fnincisco bays. Where are tliere low, sivndy '
coasts in North America? Name a cape on such a coast, and explain
the formation of bars and sandy hooks.
Surface. Name the chief mountain ranges of eastern and western
North America, giving the din^ction, the general height, the I'onna-
tion, and the comparative age of each system. Name some mountains
^ith jagged tops; some with 8m(K)th an<l level tops. Name and describe
the chief plateaus of North America. Name and describe tlu* lowlands.
Where are there valleys between mountain ranges; gJips across moun-
tain ranges!
Drainage. Name some of the most noted springs of North America,
telling about their appearance, tempemture, and use. How are these
classes of springs formed? Name some noted caves of Noi-th America,
How are caves often formed? Name the chief lakes. How are lakes
formed f Where are streams generally rapid? Why? Where are
streams sluggish? Why? Why are some streams nipid in some parts
and sluggish in other parts? Name some nvei*s which have built deltas,
and explain delta formation. Name some which tlow into estuaries, and
give the history of estuary formation. Name some rivers whose moutlis
are obstructed by bars. How are such (»bstmctions formed? Name
some rivers which have cut canyons, and explain the fonnation of can-
yon.s. Name some which meander tlinmgh Hood plains, and descrilw
flood plain fonnation. Name some rivei*s which are obstructed by falls.
How are some falls formc»d? Where are there rivers which decrease as
they advance? Why? Name some rivers useful to commerce; some
which have no commercial usefulness. Name some high divides; some
low divides.
Soil. Name the unproductive regions of North America. Which are
so because the soil is too coldj too dry; too swampy? Where has the
presence of glaciers made the soil more fertile? How? Le^ss fertile?
How? Where are there alluvial plains; sandy plains; old lake beds;
soil incrusted with saltf Why? What lands are artificially irrigated?
Rock Formations. Explain the formation of the Tidewater region
of eastern North America ; of the I^iedmont regrioiL In what region are
there mountain folds? In what region are there tilted strata? In what
Tegion are there many veins containing mineral deposits? Descril>e
the fonnation of such a vein. In what western region are there great
outflows of lava? What is a lava oe<l? Where are there volcanoes in
^orth America? Describe volcano formation. What proofs of former
glacial action are found in North America? What proofs are found of
^e power of wind m influencing land forms ? Where are there coal de-
posits? Describe the formation of coal; of peat. Which of the West
Jndies are coral islands? How are such islands formed? How may
«oral polyps aid in the growth of the mainland? Where are there some
:islands of volcanic formation near North America?
Climate. Locate the heat belts of North America in summer; in
"winter. Describe the temperature in five climatic belts or regions.
"Where are the greatest differences of climate owing to latitude? How
long does freezing weather last in several regions* Describe the cireu-
lation of air over North America; the distribution of moisture. Show
^by examples how clunate may be affected by elevations of land ; by dis-
tribution of land and water; how cHmate nmy affect ]>roducts and occu-
pations. Describe the progress of a cyclone acrc»ss North America: its
path, its direction of rotation, and the weather produced by its (hfiferent
parts. Where are there snow-capped mountains; mountain glaciers;
continental glaciers?
Life. What are the three life regions of North America! Which is
the largest ? Give reasons for the existence of these regions. How have
the plants and animals of these regions adai)ted themselves to their sur-
roundings? ^Where are there few life forms? Why? Where are there
few large tnld animals? Why? Give some uses to which the native
plants and animals of North America are put.
People. In what parts of North America do people of the black race
chiefly hve? What part of the population do they form? In what
countries are they chiefly foimd? Tell what you know of their his-
tory. What t>pes of the yellow race are found m North America!
In what part is each t}pe found? WTiich of them was found here by
the first white discoverers? What two peoples are included in this
t>'j)e? How do the Eskimos live? To what stage of progress have
they attaine<l? ^V^lere are they found? Where do the Indians chiefly
live? What stages of progress have they reached? Where were they
most advanced when America was discovered? ^V^lere liave they most
freely mingled with the whites? How numerous is tliis mixed race?
Where have the Indians remained largely separate from the whitest
Tell where and how some of the tribes live. Wliat people of the white
race chiefly inhabit North America? Wliat nations early settled there?
Wliy? From what nations do immigrants now come? Why? What
parts of North America are most densely populated; least densely?
Why? Tr>' to explain the existence of the detached regions of
moderately dense population. Has North America its proportionate
share of the world's population? What nations occupy the grand di-
vision ? Tell what you know of the history of these nations. What is
tlu»ir j)revailing form of government? What other forms of government
do you know ? Describe each. Wliat parts of North America belong to
European nations? Describe the government of one of these. Name
the republics of North America. Describe the government of the chief
of thes<». Wliat religicm prevails in North America? What are the
other chief religions of the world? What languages are spoken in North
America? In what parts is each spoken? In what parts of the grand
division is education most geneml? Name some important educa-
tional institutions.
Industries. How does the United States rank in each of the seven
great industries! What are the chief industries of British America; of
Danish America; of Mexico artd Central America; of the West Indies!
Locate the chief agricultural regions of North America; describe the
soil of each. How does agriculture depend upon cUmate? What is
irrigation? Where is it practiced? Define fertilizers; rotation of crops.
Tell where each of the following is grown, and what are the advantages
of the regrions where it thrives: wheat, com, rice, hay, oranges, sugar
cane, cacao, tobacco, cotton. Which of these are foods?
In what regions of North America are these animals raised: cattle;
hogs; sheep; horses? Give the chief uses of each, and tell where they
are best raised. Where are there fur-bearing animals? In what waters
are obtained fish; coral; sponges?
Where are there dense forests; open forests; oak, cotton wood, pine,
cedar, express, mahogany, redwood?
What regions ^-ield anthracite coal, bituminous coal; petroleum,
natural gas; iron, copper, gold, silver; marble! How are some of
these fonned? How are some obtained? How are some used?
Where are the great manufacturing regions of North America ? Where
are these articles made : cotton goods, woolen goods, clothing, silk goods,
boots and shoes ; lumber, rubber goods, pitch and rosin ; steel ships, iron
and steel, glass, cutlery, pottery, kerosene ; butter and cheese, packed
meiit, canned fruit, canned fish, refined sugar, flour, to\)aceo?
Tell the cliief trade advantages of each country of North America.
Make a list of the chief trade centers, and tell the advantages of each.
Show that surface forms affect railroad routes. Point out some im-
portant canals and tell their uses.
Make a hst of the <«,pital cities in North America. Describe one capi-
tal. AVTiat is a capital? Make a list of the large cities of North America
about which vou know some historic associations; about which vou can
tell the reason for their positions or importance. What are the parts Cf
a city; its uses!
101
SOUTH AMERICA.
Location, Extent, and Coast Features. In what part of ilif conti-
nental plateau is ISnulli Aiuericii I [iniip, ji. 8.) What is its iliri'ctioii
from North Ameritia; from Africa; from AtwIraliaT Wiiat part of
Boutli America is in tiie same longitude as Florida ; as Newfounilland ;
as Greenland t In wiiat zones doea it licT Wliat waters Hurround itf
How does it rank ninonp the grand divisions in size T (p. 157.) Is
the coast of South America mure or loss indented than that of North
America t On which eoast are the prcat estuary bays T Name the capes
nt the four oitremitics of South Ameriea, Near what pail of the eoast
are there mauy inlands ? WLal largo island is soulli of South Amenta 1
By nlut strait b it separated from the mainland t Is the submerged
part of the coatiuental plateau wider off the east or off the west coast T
Surface. Review the lesson on the highlands and lowlands of the
world (p. 10). Where is the great highland region of South America t
Compare it with that of North America in length ; in width ; in nearness
to the eoast ; in genera! direction. Wh.it plateaus are in the eastern
part of South America f Compare them with the eastern highlands of
North America in size and position. Compare the great lowland of South
America with that of North America in position ; in size. Which has
the greater area lower than 1,000 feet elevationf
The Andes Moimtains are itmch loftier than the ranges
of the Nofth American highlaii<l, and are much less broken.
They follow the north and west coasts as a continuous wall,
from the vicinity of tho island of Trinidad nearly to the
Strait of Magellan. Except near the extremities there are
few passes across the chain less than two miles high, while
many of the peaks are four miles in height, and are the
highest in America. Even in the torrid zone these lofty
peaks always bear snow and glaciei's near their summits,
and in the south glaciers descend to the .sea.
Thirty or forty active volcanoes occur along the Andes,
and many of tho high peaks are huge volcanic cones. Se-
vere earthquakes are common throughout tho chain, and
sometimes cause gi'eat loss of life. On the west slopes of
the Andes are many terraces and .shell deposits higli above
present sea level, raarkinfi ohi positions of the sea beach.
What movement of the earth's crust is probably occurring
in this region T
Andes Houn tains.
In the north the Andes consist of three ranges separated by long
river valleys. Near the equator they narrow to a single high range.
South of the equator the highland widens and is bordered by two
lofty ranges, which form the rims of the highest plateau on the con-
tinent. What is its name 1 It is about 21 miles high. South of the
plateau of Bolivia the Andes extend as a single great range to the Strait
of JIagellan, but in the south they are cut entirely through in several
places by the deep valleys of streams flowing into the Pacific. This
great range is bordered on the west by a much lower and more broken
range close along the coast.
The northern part of the plateau of Bolivia is extremely rugged, and is
traversed by deep valleys draining northwardly. Tho sonthem part is
smoother, for it was once the bed of a series of great lakes which covered
nmch of the region between tho bordering ranges, when the climate was
moislcr than it is at present. As the climate changed, the lakes shrunk
in 817.6 or disappeared entirely, leaving terraces, or old beach lines, to
mark their former limits. What is the largest remnant of these former
lakes 1 It is about half as large as Lake Ontario. What North Amen-
can lake has had a history similar to that of Lake Titicaca 1
The Brazilian plateau is much lower than the Andean
highland. Its general height is less than half a mile.
Mueh of its surface is quite level, but there are numerous
rugged divides and several mountain ranges, with at least
one peak two miles high. Tho plateau slopes abniptly in
the east to a narrow coast ])htin, but inland it merges
gradually into the great central lowland. In wliot direc-
tion does the highland of Guiana extend ? The eastern
highlands of Soutli America, like those of Nortli America,
are much older than the western highlands.
104
Between tiie highland regions, extending the entire length
of the grand division, and from the Andes to the Atlantic,
is a vast lowland plain. Low divides extend across this
lowland from the Andes to the eastern highlands^ separat-
ing its surface into a northern, a central, and a southern
slope. In what general direction does each descend 1 The
slopes, however, are so gradual and the divides so low that
they are quite imperceptible, and the characteristic fea-
tures of nearly the whole region are its flatness and its
slight elevation above sea level.
There are very few old, hard rocks exposed on the level nurface of
this lowland, which is mostly covered with a fine clayey eoil. Many peo-
ple believe that much of this region
was formed beneath a shallow sea
by eediment worn from the adjacent
highlands, and was upheaved in com-
paratively recent times, like theTide-
water region of our Atlantic coast
Parts of the region^ especially in the
south, are still rinng, bat parts of
the nortbeastem and BonUteastem
coasts are thought to be now sinking.
Climate. Review the leaeon on
the heat belts (pp. 24, 25). What
part ot Bonth America is always hot 1
What part has temperate winters
and hot sommeis T What parts are
always temperate t Mention some
part of South America that is al-
ways cold. Hention a South Ameri-
can winter month. Review the les-
sons on winds and rainfall (pp. 26,
27), What winds prevail over the
northern part of Boath America ; over the sonthem part 1 Over what
part of Bonth America does the equatorial rain belt lie in January t
Where does it lie in Julyl Where do the tropical calms cross South
America f What parts of South America have heavy or moderately
heavy rainfall 1 Whyl What parts have light rains or little or no
raini Whyl In which half of the year do you think that most of
the rain falls in South America t Why t
There is comparatively little difference between the
temperatures of winter and summer in South America.
-Host of the lowlands are always hot ; in the extreme south
they are stormy, chilly, and disagreeable, but seldom veiy
cold ; the elevated plateaus of the Andes are always tem-
perate, and the higher summits of this chain always cold.
It is only in a comparatively naiTow central belt that
there is a notable difference between the temperatures
of summer and winter, and in this region the winters
are seldom cold enough for the foraiation of ice.
The most plainly marked seasons are the wet and the
dry, and they are determined by the position of the equa-
torial rain belt.
In onr summer the rain belt lies north of the equator, and at this
seasim there is generally least rain in South America. Aa the rain belt
sweeps southward in our fall and winter, and northward again in our
sprii^, it yields the heavy daily rains which make the rainy season. At
all times the southeast or the northeast trades blow far inland and dis-
oharge heavy rains wherever they are forced to rise. Hence the east
slope of the Andes in the torrid Kone is one of the rainiest regions in the
woiid. The Paeifle slope, however, sonth of the nun belt, receives only
the winds which have lost their moistnre on the east slope, and there-
fore this nfpaa. is one of the diieat in the world. In the south, where
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
westerly winds prevail, the west slope recavea a heavy lunftO, whi^k
the region east of the mountains is qoite dry.
Drainage. Traoe the continental divide of South Amerioa. I^a^^
the divides of five river basins which together embraea nea^ — "
of the Atlantic slope, except its sonthem extremity. Whioh oC thi^^
basins is largettt 1 How does the Amaaon basin compare in maa wtft ^^h
largest river basin in North America T Compare these baaina In maam^^
of rainfall, and number of tributary strea^os. From tliese e
do you think the Missisaippi-Missoari or the Amaaon ia tha I
streani T What is the next largest river baan of Soath Amerioaf
pare it with the Mississippi bamn in siae and ninfialL Do yon think tb«=
Mistdsaippi or the Plata discharges more water into the seat Nam* ao^M
locale the three other great basins of Boutb America. How do yoa thia^H
they compare with the Yukon or the Colorado Biver in the anoant omm
water they carry f Whyl Whyar^
there no long riven on the Paei6^-j
slope of South America t
The enormous amount oft'-<
nun which falls on the Atlan— :
tic slope of South Americi^
gives to it some of the great —
est rivers in the world. ThaB
Amazon, while not so long ase
the Mississippi-Missouri, hasE
a larger basin and dischai-ges s
much more water into the «
ocean. It is much the largest
river in the world.
The great river is several miles
wide and is deep enough for the
largest ocean steamers for more
than a thousand miles above its mouth; lai^e steamboats can ascend
to the very foot of the Andes. When the river is flooded after the
rainy seasons, it spreads oat over the flat lowland to a much greater
width, and it has built up a very wide flood plain, which is traversed
by many broad, deep bayous. Name the two lai^^est tributaries from
the north. Count the large tributaries from the sonth. Name the largest.
Find the Tooantins River. What ts its estuary called t By what is
it separated from the main estuary of the Amazon 1 Aa it is thus
separated, the Tooantins- Pain River is sometimes not included in the
Amazon system, though its estuary is connected with the Amazon and
is always used by steamers aacending that river from the ocean. The
main Amazon estuary, north of Marajo Island, is filled with rocky
islands and is quite shallow near its mouth. Whyl No well-marked
Os tha lower (Mbogo Slvsr, YtMsada.
SOUTH AMEBICA.
besr, and boa congtriotor. Among the smaller animals are various
kinds of monlceys, sloths, peocaries, and ant-eaters ; many kinds of
hamming birds, parrots, and other gorgeously colored but generally
Bongless birds; aud couatless insects and reptiles. In the rivers are
found the vbale-like manatee and nmny great alligators.
The Uama, alpaca, vicu&a, and little chinchilla
made greater progress than any others in America, hav-
ing nearly reached the lowest stage of civilization.
The most advanced tribe were the Incas, vho lived near Lake Titi-
caca. With the aid of irrigation and fertilizers they cultivated com, pota-
toes, and cotton; they had domesticated the llama as a beast of
^ burden, and the alpaca for its wool, which they wove into doth;
' — '' they built fine roads and immense buildings of stooo; they
^ made bronzo and knew how fo work gold
OA CONSTRICTO^^^ and silv.-r, of which they made beautiful
'^f j^ ^^^^^^ omnineD(.s and utensils. They had
' adapted to 'In.'
-colder climate of the
Andes by a heavy coat of wool
«r fur, for which the Ibima and alpaca are
domesticated. The llama U also used as a
fceaat of burden. Auion^ the mountains are
found also doer, benrs, the puma or panther, aud
'the great condor.
The characteristic antmats of the pampas are the
armadillo, the guanaco (a kind of llama), and the
•American ostricli, or rhea. Deer are also found both on
4he pampas and cm the llanos, but by far the most
snimals of these plains are the descendants of the cattle, sheep,
&nd horses introduced by nun since the discovery of America.
Supplemental Work. Descrilw one plant of Konth America ; one
animal. Write a roproiliiotion of the description given by one of your
Bebooliiiatetu Read " What Mr. Darwin Saw."
MAN.
Compare South and N<irth Amcrit-a in area; in population (p. 157).
<7alculate the avenge number of people to the square mile, or the
density of population, in each. If the people of the world were evenly
43i8tributed over the land. South America would have six times its
present population. What parts of South America are most densely
peopled! Tell one reason why
so few people Uvo in the central
region ; in the southern region.
What races live in South Amer-
ica t Where do the whites live
chiefly T Where are nearly all the
people Indians t Where are there
many negroes \
Peoples and Countries.
When Coluiubus tfiscov-
ercd the New World thei-e
were probably more Indi-
ans in South America than
in North America. Those
of the lowland were gen-
erally savages, but those
of the Andes highland had
^"~ ■ ANT-EATE>t
Some aniinala of South America.
conquered nearly all the tribes of the Andes region and formed them
into a great confederacy or nation, which numbered several miUion
people.
The Spaniards who followed Columbus to the north
coast of South America in search of gold heard of the
gold-working Incas, and soon conquered them and estab-
lished themselves throughout nearly the whole Andes
highland as far east as the Orinoco. Spaniai-ds also made
settlements in tlie Plata valley.
Meanwhile navigators from Portugal, a country lying
next to Spain in southwestern Europe, explored and
conquered much of the east coast, wliich came to be called
Brazil. Here the Portuguese made the first agiicultunil
settlements in America, to wliich they brouglit thousands
of negro slaves from Africa.
Tims most of eastern and central South America was claimed and
settled by the Portoguese, while the Andes region and the lower part
of the Plata basin were claimed and settled by Spaniards. On tbe
northeast coast the English, French, and Dutch founded a few small
settlements.
The Spaniards and the Portugucso ensUved the Indians, forced
them to work in the mines or on the plantations, and often trenti-d
them cruelly. But many white settlers married Indian women, and
in the east many negroes and Indians also intermarried, so tlint now
fully one third of the people of South America are of a mixed race.
About one third are pure-blooded whites, and the rest are Indians
108
PAfiTS OP THE EARTH.
and negroes. Slavery has beeii abolished, but most of the manual labor
is performed by the mixed races and the negroes.
The King of Spain ruled his South Amoriean rolonios
so liarslily that finally they rebelled, and jifter Innj; Wiirs
became independent republies, in which the Spanish lan-
guage still prevails. About the same time the PortUfruose
colonists declared their independence of Portugal, and
formed the only independent monarchy that lias ever
existed in America. In 188!), however,tlteir country became
a republic, in which the Portuguese language is slill spoken.
Name Ihe Portuguese republic; the Dine Spanish n-publiiTi ; the
three European colonies. Brazil, Ai^utiaa, anil Venczui'l;i iire cmii-
posed of states or provinces in which, as in our states, llii' ollicirs nri'
elected by the people and are nearly independent of the fedenil guvcni-
ment in local affairs. The other republics ant divided into proxini-cn
or departments for which the central government appoints the c)lliccrs.
There have been frequent wars in ail the i-epuhlics over the wurkiii.ir of
their governments, and nearly all have fought with one nnulher ovit
their boundaries, few of which are yet definitely settled. On ai'couiit
of these wars the countries have not advanced in wealth aixl impor-
tance so rapidly as the United States. Still, much progress has recently
been made. Slavery having been abolished, free settlers are coming in
thonsands from Europe. Some railroads have been built ; the larger
cities are provided with street cars and electric lights; aiul sihonls and
collies have been established, ('atholic missions were early founded
f the Indians, and most of the people in Simtli Atiierica jirofess
Europe. We get most of our eoffee and rubber, much wo-<:::;^\
aud sugar, and many hides from South America, to whi*_*^
we send flour and some miiimt'actured goods, for compai— ^i,
tively little manufacturing is done there. Most of t^ ^,.
South AniiM-ican imports come from Great Britain, Gt£b=- v-
many, and France, to which countries wool, beef, mutter :^
wheat, coffe*;, gold, silver, nitrates, and forest products a_ ^^-^
exported in return.
Where are most of the railroads in South Aineric^a. »
(p. 10().) Tlio.<i^ carry tin; agi-icultnral and animal jinw «:/-
nets to the Keaports, wliile the railroads in the north at a»J
west carry the iiro<lucts of the mines to the coast.
Where is the continent crosseil by a short railroad ', Though shorfc it
is one of the most important railroads in South America. Why I Jd
the south Huolher transcontinental road is completed, with the ciceptL .—id
of u few iiiiK's in the Andes. Throughout the central region the Amas -«\\
with iis tributaries is the great commercial route, by which rubber a :^il
<ither fori'st jiroducls are c.irried from the very base of the Andes to t Jit
seiiitort at the river mouth.
THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL. In what part of the graz^i.l
di^Tsion is limzil T What countries border it t What South Atncric^^nu
countries do not I Trace the chief divides of Bnizil. What river basi ii3
do they separate T Describe the surface ; the climate ; the chief rive^^Hv,
\Vhat is the history of Brazil t Name and locate the capital ; four cilt_ es
north of the capital; two south.
On\y n P'lnnU part o? Brazil, mostly in the soutbeast., is c\». \-
tivated. Tlic niowt viilnable crop is cofTee, of which Braz=;=^il
s more tliiin all the rest of the world. It is grow '^
oil ihc uplands nojtii and west of Rio de Janeiro. Farth<^^^'
imrtli, alotiK 'ho coast, sugar, cotton, and tobacco are raiset--^-
Much corn and cassava are cultivated, and they form th -*'^
chief food of the laboring classes. lu the Parana vallei^
ail herb called mate is extensively grown. Its leaves ara
much used in Snuth America as a substitute for tea
that faith; but othc
all the countries eicept P
Industries and Products. The cliief in-
dustries in South America are herding, ayri-
culture, and mining. Where are the cliicf
pasture lands? The valleys of the Plata
River system, the southeastern part of the
Brazilian plateau, and the river valleys along
the northern coast of the grand division are
the chief agricultural regions. In the torrid
zone, coflfce, corn, sugar, cotton, cacao, cassava, and tobacco
are gi-own; in the temperate zone, wheat, corn, and barley.
Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the Andes region, but
the chief mineral product is nitrate of soda, useful as a
fertilizer and in making gunpowder. Tliis is obtained
from old liiko beds on the dry western slope. In the
eastern highlands also some gold is found.
Most of the foreign trade is with the United States and
Herding cattle on tbe pampas, Argentina.
What products do the silvas supply! In the extreme
south the lierding of cattle is the chief industry.
]iio lie Jdueiro, the second city of South America in size, is
about as large as Boston. It has one of the few fine harbors
of South Amci'ica, and ships nmch coffee, mostly to the
irnited States. What city is west of Rio t It is in the cof-
fee region, and is the educational center of BraziL Its port,
!Santos, ships more coffee than Rio, but chiefly to Europe.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Bahia aiul Pcniamhuco, each about as large as Detroit,
jaro the ports of tlio sugar and tobacco district. Para is
"the great rubber-shipping port, and MaranhSo ships raw
«3otton. Porto Alegre exports dried beef and hides.
ARGENTINA. What countries boriier Ai^cntma I How does it
■^c-ank in size aiuoop South, Anierioan oounfriesi Describe its surface;
i.-ta cliief rivers. What is the capitalt Name three cities of the inleriof.
Argentina is the most prosperous of the Spanish ■
lies. It has more raib'oads than Brazil, and is
i-apidly settled by Italians and other soutlieni l-Iiini
Tt is one of the great wool-,
beef-, and nmtt«n-exporting j -
countries of the world. Hides,
tallow, aud other animal prod-
nets are also exported, as
well as mucli wheat from the
lower Parana valley. In tliat
region large crops of whent,
com, and flax are raisi'd, lunl
■epub-
bein'r
Pablic gardens, Bahia.
there are extensive sugar plantations and vineyards, as
well as many flour mills and wine-making establishments.
Suettos Aires, tlie largest city of South America, ranks
between Boston and Philadelphia in size. One half of
the population are Europeans. Its harbor lias been deep-
ened at heavy cost. It is the great seaport of the re-
public and of nearly the whole Plata valley. Wbat city
in our country has similar coraineroial advantages t Mo-
sano, Cordova, and Tucuman are mueli smaller trade centers.
URUGUAY. What countries border Uroguay ! Deaoribe its surface
and dnuaage. What is its capital f
Though the smallest republic in South America, Uru-
guay ranks fourth in the value of its foreign com-
merce. Its industries are the same as those of Argen-
1:ina. Montevideo, the chief commercial city, is about
one third the size of Buenos Aires.
PARAGUAY. What countries border Paraguay t Id vhatzoneais
ft.1 1 By what rivers is it drained 1 What in the capital I
Public squaie, Buenos Aiiea.
Cattle raising is an impor-
tant industry, but the climate
is too warm for sheep. Mat^
or " Paraguay tea," is exten-
sively cultivated, as well as
corn, cassava, tobacco, and
sugar cane, the women work-
ing the crops, and the men
gathering the niat6 leaves
and herding the cattle. Lumbeiing is carried on in the
extensive forests. Asuncioti is the chief trade center.
CHILE. By what is Chile bordered t Describe the surface of Chile
What peak is near the center of its eastern boundary T It has an
elevation of about -i^ miles, and is the highest point of the Western
Continent. Esplain the difference between northern and southern Chile
in temperature, rainfall, and veg'etatLon. What is the capital 1 What
seaport is near it ? Name three cities further south. Name two eea-
ports ia the north.
Because of differences in climate, northern, central, and
southern Chile differ greatly in aspect and in industries.
In the warm northern deserts raining is the chief industry.
Silver, copper, and gold are mined, and from tlie old lake
beds between the Andes and the coast ranges great quan-
tities of nitrate of potash are obtained. Six sevenths of
the people live in the central region of moderate rainfall,
where agriculture aud the herding of sheep and cattle
are leading industries, and fine crops of wheat and bar-
ley, grapes and other fruits are raised. Coal is mined
and exported from the coast range south of Coneepeion.
In the southern I'egion of heavy rainfall lumbering is
becoming an important industry, though Chile imports
much lumber from the United States. Coal and gold are
also mined in the south, near Punta Arenas. Chile ranks
third in commerce among the South American countries.
More than half the exports are nitrates ; then come silver,
copper, wheat and barley, and iodine. Most of the trade
is with Europe.
Santiago, the largest city, is about the size of Cincinnati.
It is almost half a mile above the sea, and fifty miles in-
land. Like most of the larger cities of South America,
it was founded within fifty years after the discovery of
110
PARTS OF THE EABTH.
Suitugo, Chile.
America, ami is therefore much older than any city in
the United States. Because of earthquakes, the houses,
as in all the cities of the Andes region, are generally low
and the streets wide. Valparaiso, the largest Pacific port
of South America, is the chief importing point of Chile.
Most of the minerals are shipped f i-om Iquique. Why T
BOLIVIA. WIiAt countries border Bolivia t In what respect does
Bolivia differ from all other South American countries except Paraguay 1
Deaoribe the surface. What is the capital! Locate two other cities.
The eastern range of the Andes is wide and exceedingly
rugged in Bolivia. Several of its vast volcanic cones are
nearly as high as Mt. Aconcagua. In these inountaius
are mined great quantities of silver and tin, which are
exported chiefly through the Chilean port of Antofagasta.
Most of the imports come through the Peruvian port of
Mollendo. Both ports are connected hy railroads with the
plateau. On the plateau wheat, corn, harley, beans, and
potatoes are raised for local consumption, and cattle,
sheep, and llamas are herded. Cinchona, cacao beans, and
rubber are gathered from the forests of the east slopes and
exported by way of the Madeira and Paraguay rivers.
La Pae is the largest town and the usual seat of govern-
ment. The city is built in a deep gorge, through which
Lake Titicaca once found an outlet into the Amazon sys-
tem. Sucre, not far from the rich silver mines of Potosi,
is the constitutional capital.
PERU. What oonntriei border Pent What great river rises
PemT Describe the Barfaop. In what three climatic regions di
Peru lie I Locate the capitaL What city is in the sonth t What ct
lies on the plateau t
Few people live on the desert coast, because it is so di — — ,
or in the inland forests, because they are so wet. Mu c —
sugar and cotton are grown, by the aid of irrigation, - —
the valleys of the west slope, and they form the chief e_
ports. On the plateau silver is mined, the same kinds -
food plants are raised as in Bolivia, and llamas, alpac^^^^
and goats are herded. Some wool and silver are also p ~ :
Iiorted. On the east slope, rubber, cacao beans, and cti^^^i
ehoua arc gathered. There are rich petroleum wells ^^SZ i
the north, and extensive deposits of guano along the dt_ ^_v
coast. Three fourths of the people are of Indian descei*. 't.
Lima, the largest city, is about the size of Indianafr-T>-
oli.s. It is six miles from the ocean and about GOO fet^^^*
al>ove it. What is its seaportt Arequipa is an importarr'-if
railroatl town, more than one and a half miles above tli^»e
sea. Cuzco, the cliief town of the plateau region, was iIl^w*!
old capital of tlie Incas.
The Cathedral, Lima.
ECUADOR. What countries border Ecuador 1 Describe its aniface. '''
Kama two volcanoes. What is the capita ; the chief seaportt
Ecuador has but little commereial importance. It claims ^*
large areas to the east which have been occupied by Colom- "^
bia and Peni. Cacao is cultivated on the Pacific slope ^
and is the chief export, though some coffee is also exported. - ■'
QaiU>, the largest town, though nearly on the equator, is ^
about two miles above the sea and has a delightful climate. ' '
(juayaquil is the principal commercial city.
The Oalapagoa group of thirteen volcanic islands belongs to Ecuador. ' '
The lower Blopea ara dry and nearly bare of v^^etation, but the upper '^'
slopes receive amjile ruinfull and are covered with dense tropical foivsts. -■^
' There are few inhabitants.
COLOMBIA. By what countries and waters is Colombia bordered f ^ J
Trace the divides between the Pacific, Caribbean, and Atlantic slope& —^ -^k
Describe the surface. What is the capital 1 Name two other cities.
I Most of the people live in the upper valleys of t)i'^^z^e
I Cauca and Magdalena rivers. On the hot lowlands cassav-ii.-^.a
1 and bananas are cultivated; at more temperate elevatioTTr-::3is^
I corn, potatoes, tobacco, and cacao ; and on the cool hig
I m —
EURASIA.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
Extent and Coast Features. Id what part of the oontiiidiital
plateuu U Eurasia 1 (map, p. H.) Butwuen which grand divisioiiB of
laud dooB it liel By wliat is it separated from or counected with
each of the three t How does it comj)are with North America in
sizef (p. 157.) What part of the liuid sur£a<!e of the world does
it embrace f
Ou the map, pp. 112, 113, couueol with straiglit liuoa the most
Qorthensteru, Routhcastem, and southwesteru points of Eurasia.
Which of the three sides of the graud division has the most regu-
lar coast line 1 Nnme four seas, two gulfs, aud a bay which border
thi! iiiirtlitru const. Wliat two peninsulas project from itt What
large islands are near it t
Whii^li iii the iniist iiTt'gular coast of EurasiaT What four seas
biirik-r it west of the irithmus of Suez T With what ocean are they
conueutodl ^Vhut thrcu peninsulas project from this part of the
ooust 1 Name live lur^o islands in the Medit«rraueau Sea. Name
two seas, a giilf, and a bay which border the coast east of the
isthmus. Witli what ocean are they connected t What three great
peninsulas do tlmy bordert
Name six so.-is and a gulf on the east coast. Of what ocean are
tlieyapartt What peninsulas project from this ooastt What
island groups are soulh ami cast of the Soutli China Seal What
long island chain is north of llio I'hilippiue Islands f
Surface. Review the lesson on highlands and lowlands (p. 10).
In what part of Eurasia are nearly all the highlands 1 Compare
them with the Ammcan liigliland in length; in width; in direc-
tion. NaniD four large plateaus of the Eurasian liiglilaud ; five
smaller pliiteans. What part of Eurasia is an almost continuous
lowland plaint By what moimtaiu range is it divided t By
what oceans is it bordered? How do the Pacific aud Indian Oceaa
slopes of Eurasia compare with the Pacific slope of America ia
amount of lowland t Name three lowland plains on the Pacifla
slope of Eurasia; two on the Indian Ocean slope. Name a great
detached plateau of this slope.
The Highlands. The great Eurasian highland ex-
tends as a continuous region of elevation from Bering
Sti-ait to the MediteiTauean Sea. It is cut entirely
through by the outlet from the Blaek Sea, but exteuda
through southern Europe as a broken and much
narrower highland to the Spanish peninsula. In
central Asia this vast highhind is as wide as the
tJniteil States from San Francisco to Chesapeake Bay.
There is no continuous mountain chain traversing
the great highland, as in Aniericjit, but from Bering
Strait to the Strait of Gibraltar there is a broken suc-
cession of mountain ranges. Between them are broad
desert plateaus which differ greatly in elevation. The
small, nigged Pamir plateau and the extensive but
smoother platoau of Tiliet are about three miles in
elevation, while the great plateaus to the northeast
and southwest of them are not one third as high. The
moiHifain ranges rise from one to three miles abo\e
the surface of the plateaus, and some of them are the
highest in the world.
What three ranges extend eastward from tbe Pamir region,
forming the borders of the plateaus of Tibet and Mongolia T Thest
are Die loftiest mountiuns in the world. The upper third of their
sliipes is always covered with snow, from which great valley glaciers
extend iimch lower. Mt, Everest, in the Himalayas, is tho liighest
measured peak, and has an elevation of 5i miles, but there are
many peaks nearly five miles high in each of these ohains.
114
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
What two chaina are in the northern part of the plateau of Mon-
goliaf What chain forms_its eastern border? What is this chain
called north of the Amor River 1 These chaina are lower than those
nearer the Pamir plateau, but the anow-olad peaks of the Altai range
are three miles high.
What three chains form the northern border of the highland west of
Pamir plateau f The Hindu Kueh is a snow-capped r&nge about four
miles high. The other ch^ns are lower, but tliey contain lofty peaks,
and the upper valleys of the Caucasus are filled with glaciers. What
chains border the plateau of Iran on the cast and on the southwest t
What plateaus and mnges compose the Eurasian highland in south-
ern Europet Of these the Alps and the P>-reiiees arc snow-clad, and
have peaks between two and three miles lii^h.
What two mountain ranges are in the gruut northern lowland 1 These
ranges are scarcely a mile high. The Unils are a ^TiKlual swell in the
great plain. The Kiolen Mountains stiip<! gradually to the enst, but
their abrupt western slope fomis the bold, rocky const of llio Scandi-
navian peninsula. Great glaciers descend from thoin to the sea.
What plateau occupies the peninsula of Inilia f It is comjiosed of old
outflows of lava like those of the Columbia plati^aus.
Earthquakes are not uncommou tbrouphdut the Eurasian hij^land,
and they indicate that its upheaval may still l>o in prufn'ess. There are
many old volcanic rocks in the highland region, but comparatively few
active volcanoes on tlio mainland of Eurasia, and these are widely sep-
arated— one ia on the Italian peninsula, two or three near tbe Cas-
pian Sea, one or two northeast of the Pamir plateau, and several on
the peninsula of Kamchatka. About 150 active volcanoes, however,
occur on the long chain of mountainous islands which rise from the sub-
merged edge of the contincutnl plateau east and southeast of Asia.
This region is the greatest ceuter of volcanic activity in the world.
It is sliaken by earthquakes almost constantly. Probably no other part
of the continental plateau is being upheaved so rapidly.
The Lowlands. Most of the great nortlierii lowland
has an elevatiou of less tlian 500 feet, and in places it is
actually below sea level. Find such a place. lu general
its flat surface is broken only by the low bluffs which
border the broad flood plains of the streams.
The detached lowland plains to the east and south of the
great highlands ai-e composed of alluvium washed from the
bordering mountains, and their upheaval is thought to
have been comparatively recent.
Climate. Review the lesson on the heat belts (pp. 24, 25). In what
five heat belts does Eurasia lie t What part of Eurasia bes in each hent
beltT To which other grand division is Eurasia similar in the general
distribution of its beat belts I Review the lessons on winds and rain-
fall (pp. 26, 27), Where are the largest regions of lieavy or moderately
heavy rainfall in Eurasia t Where are the regions of light rains or no
rainT What is peculiar about the winds of southern and sonlheastem
AsiaT (p, 26.) What eSect have these winds and the highlands apon
the rainfall of this region ; upon tbe rainfall of central and southwest-
em Ara&l What are the causes of the moderately heavy and the light
rainfall in western and northern Bumsia 1
Because o( the jrroater extent of Eurasia the extremes
of temperature in the interior are greater than in North
America. Why t The coldest winters in the world occur
in northeastern, and nearly tlie hottest summers in soutb-
wi'stern Asia. Thus, with the exception of the southeru
and the western parts, Eurasia is characterizwl by excess-
ive temperature changes during the ycrnr. Even in the
hot belt there is a chilly season when the dry winds blow
southward fn»in the highlands. The summer heat aiid
the winter eohl in the wi'st are tempered by tbe pie-
vailing vdnds from the Atlantic.
In the south and southeast the monsoon winds (p. 26)
blowing from the sea in summt^r y'nM i-opious rainfitU
on the seaward slopes, while little rain falls at otli^*
seasons, when the winds blow seaward. The sea winds
lose most of their moisture on the seaward .slopes of tl>-*
ranges bordering tlie great highlands, so that the plateau*'
and lowlands behind these ranges receive little or no rai-J"
and are therefore deserts. The westerly winds, with the-"*-
cyelonic storms, yield ample rainfall at nearly all seaso*-*
over western and central Europe, but have little moistu »•'
left when they reach northern Asia.
Drainage. Beginning in the Khinghan Mountains trace a contiu. "^^
ous line amund a great central region <if Eurasia whose drainage d<»-*^
not reach the ocean or any of its amis. Lin-ate this region on the rai.^'^
fall map, and tell why it ia a region of " interior drtiinagc." Does at^^
rain fall in this region T Dives tlio rainf.-ill (five rise to any stream^^
What becomes of these strcamst (p. I'l.) Is the water of these lak ^^
fresh or salt f Why I What is tho largest sheet of water in this rcgiot^*-
W hat two large tributaries has it! If the r:iinfnll of Oenlrtd Asia wc^*^
sufficiently heavy, part of this great interior linsin woidd be drained '
the Pacific, part to the Indian Ocean, and part to the Atlantic Ocew
through the Caspian, Black, and Mediterranean seas. What other pa — ■^
of Eurasia sends no drainage to tli.' sen t Wliat three hirge rivers c:^
Eurasia flow to the Arctic Oceiiu t What four flow to the Paci^^
Ocean! Name four that flow lo iho Indian Ocean. Name three th^^
flow to the Atlantic Ocian, thnniirli tlii' Black Sea. Do the Eurasia — '
rivers flowing to the Arctic and those flowing to the Indian Ocean hnv
their souroea near together t Why not f
116
PAETS OF THE EARTH.
k
ARcusmEASA:ir
Some animaU of Eurasia.
laiii«b, and myrtles are oommon trees on the lower and moister slopes,
while firs, pmea, and other trees yielding re^ous gums grow at greater
devations.
This is the true liome of the aueestoi-s of the horse, the
cow, the camel, the sheep, the goat, and the hog, and great
numbers of all these domesticated animals are raised
here, while wild animals elosely related to them are the
most characteristic animals. There are many kinds of
wUd sheep and goats, antelopes and gazelles, wild boars,
camels, asses, and wild oxen, including oxlike, hairy yaks,
and hairless buffaloes. There are several kinds of bears
among the mountains, while the tiger and the leopard
wander northward over the transitional regions as far as
to the Amur River in the east and to the southern shores
of the Caspian Sea in the west.'
The great deserts are almost entirely devoid of surface water for hun-
dreds of mUes. In places, however, the ground water comes near
enough to the surface to supply the roots of plants. In such a place an
oatM of vegetation is formed in the midst of the barren desert. Some
oases are many miles in extent and contain springs and running
streams, but others are quite small and afford water to the thirsty traveler
only by means of shallow weUs which have been dug down to the under-
ground supply.
Violent winds at times sweep over the open desert, raising dense
clouds ot dust and sand, which are carried forward in such immense
quantities as nearly to bury any unfortunate travelers overtaken by the
storm. Beoause of such windstorms some parts of almost all deserts are
bare and stony, beiug swept nearly clean of the surface detritus, -^vhfle
other parts are deeply covered with shifting sand dunes.
The dense forests of soutlieastern Asia have been m tJcIi
reduced by the crowded population, and are now confixied
to tracts least favorable to cultivation — as marshy 1 ow-
lands or rough hilly districts. These forests are miich
denser and more luxuriant than those of the north, 1°
the lowlands are many kiuds of palms, bamboos, and trees
yielding India rubber, spices, and dyewoods, together wit'i
pitcher plants and hundreds of vines growing between t^^
trees, matting them together and forming with the ra-U^
undergrowth an impenetrable ^Mrt^fe.
Here the ihiuoceros and the wild boar make tli^ir
homes. Tigers and several kiuds of leopards also li^'^
in the jungle. These fierce animals wander out into fcl*^
cultivated lands at night and kill hundreds of people eve^ ^y
year, besides thousands of sheep and cattle. Many m<r^'*
people, however, are killed by the bite of the cobra, a v^^"^*
omous snake wiiieh abounds in India.
On the higher lands the forests are composed of ma^*'^
fine timber trees, of which the toon, sal, teak, satinwoc^^-**^
and sandalwood are the most valuable. In these for*
are found elephants, bears, monkeys, and wild cattle.
Supplemental Work. Make lists of the Eurasian plants and anim^^' .
which you have seen. Describe one plant and one animal of Eura^^*"
which you have not seen.
Hap Exercise on Europe. The Uml and Csnoanu moonbuna and
Qu Cospi&n and Black seaa are often oonffidp'^-d the boundaries be-
tween Europe and Asia. What is the most northern point of the Euro-
pean mainland f What point on tlte American mainland is in about the
Mune latitude f What point on the eastern coast of America is in about
the same latitude as the most southern point of the European mainland t
How does Europe compare with the United States in size?
From the Ural Mountains trace the divide between the northern and
southern iilopes of Europe. In what pbydcal di^'ision docs the east-
ern half of this divide her The western halfT Into what arms of the
■ea is the northern slope drained 1 Name two rivers that flow into the
Baltic S(>n; two that flow into the North Sea; one that flows into the
Bay of Biscay. Into what seas is the southern slope dminedT Trace
the divide in Europe of the Caxpian basin; of tho Black Sea basin.
Name tho two largest rivers of tho Caspian basin; the throe Inr^st of
tho Blat-k St-a buain. Wluit river flown into tho Adriatic! What two
flow into the western part of tho McditiTrant'un f
Through what part of Europe does tlio (m-nt Eunusian highland ex-
tend? What monntains and what plains are in the Danube basin F ^Vhat
mountains form the Kouthem divide of this basin f Wliat mountains
extend south into tho Grecian peninsulaf What mountains tnivcrso the
Italian peninsula F What mountaitia are between tho Alps and the PjTe-
neesT Kame two ranges of tho Spanish plateau. Wliat mountains are
in northwestern Europe! What group of lai^ islands is near the west
ooastT By what ia Great Britain separated from tho mainland!
Supplemental Work. Sketch Europe, locating ita chief mountains,
pUteans, plains, divides, riveni, bays, and islands. Model Europe.
mainly from the different ways in which the two regions were eiviliwHl.
The Unite*! States received civilisation Ihroujth the ovemuining and
; of the country, during the last 300 years, by a vast number of
highly civiUzed, white foreigners, most of whom used the E^^ish lan-
guage. This foreign population absorbed or drove off the comparativeily
few native Indians and replaced barbarism with its own old and foreign
civilization. Civilization, on tho contrary, was itself very young and
rude when it first appeared in Europe thousands of years ago, and it
spread among the many native tribes so slowly that tho barbarous na-
tives themselves gradually became civilized, and then, as the centuries
pasMd, they invented the more modem ci\-ilization which was carried to
America. As araonf^ the American Indians, so among the l)arbarous
tribes of Europe there were many native languages. In tlie United
States the native languagt's and custoins wei-e swept away with tho
Indiana, but in Europe various tril>es retained their languages and
many of their customs as they gradually advanced in civilization.
Hie languages and customs of neighboring tribes were often some-
what rimilar but were quite different from those in distant r^ons, tor
few people traveled far trom home in those days. It was only when
some tribe oonquered and settled among another people that distant tribes
mixed together. In such oases both of the old languages griadually disap-
peared, while from their blending a new language came to be used by
the deeoendants of the mixed people.
The states of our Union are merely political subdlviaons farmed
mainly for the convenience of local government— many of them having
been marked out on paper with straight and regular boundaries before
they were settled by civihzed men. Most of the countries of Europe, how-
ever, are regions inhabiteil by people who during ages of occupation and
contact have becomo more closely related to one another in language,
customs, aad history, than they are to the people of the other countries.
Hence tho boundaries of European countries are very irregular.
Southwestern Europe, Namefivecountricsof theEuropeanmwnland
which have a seacoaat and which he west of the Rhine and the Adriatic
Sea. These are called Latin countries because the languages spoken in
them are derived from the Latin language used by the ancient Romans.
A ViMoK's ship.
The Latins were a people of Italy who early received civilization from
the Grecian peninsula. They built Rome, vrliich 2000 years ago was the
lai^rest and most magnificent city of the world. They conquered and
taught civilization to all the tribes of Europe southwest of the Rhine,
and added that region to the great Roman Empire, which extended east-
ward through southern Europe and far into southwestern Asia.
The Christian reUgion was brought to Rome by the Apostles shortly
after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and Rome to this day is tho resi-
dence of tho Pope, the head of the Catholic Church; and this form of
reli^on still prevails in all tho Latin countries.
Central Europe. Trace a straight litie from southeastern Italy to
North Cape. What seven countries lie wholly or mostly between this
line and the Latin countries! Most of tho languages in this region, as
well as the EngLsh language, which ia used in tho British Isles, resemble
the old German language, and so these countries are often called Ger-
manic or Teutonio countries.
The old Teutonic tribes remained barbarians long after the Romans
had conquered and civilized the Latin countrie.s, for though the UoTiians
often fought the Teutons they could never conquer them, but were at
last conquered by them. Then followed tlie " Dark Ages," during which
the barbarians overran tho civilized Latin countries, liut in doing so
learned ci^-ilization from the conquered people. Two Teutonic trills,
the An^es and the Saxons, whoso home was near tho shores of tlio North
Sea, crossed to Great Britain and settled in the eoiitheni pnrt, which
camo to Ivo called Angle-land or England, wliile the blended laiipiiiige of
these settlers bu-nme Anglo-Sa:ton or early English. The tribes of tho
Scandinavian and Danish peninsulas were fearless sea rovers called
Northmen and Vikings. They overran all the coasts of the North Sea
120
and tho English Chann<;t and discovcrcKl and settled Ici-latul and CJreen-
land. They probably oven vLsitod New Euglaiid, 'MO ytiirs htl'ort Co-
Ivimbos reached the West Indies.
The Christian religion was spread tlirDnghoul. central Eiin>|)t) by
priostii and monks bulonging to the Catholic Chureli, but now I he l'rc)tfs-
tant faith prevails in all the Uermauio countries, escepl Austriu, whiiOi
is still mainly Catholic.
Eastern Europe. Wlwt great country occupies iimst of e;istim Eii-
ropct What six countries occupy the southeast itii |iiirt ( The eiislem
part of Europe is called Slavonic Europe because nearly all of the
languages used show a blendinit with tln' Imifruiitn- us.-.l by the Slavs,
a great tril>o that once lived uortlii'.'ist of the l,'iir[)allii:iii M.niiLlaizis.
Although Oreceo was the first European ref,'iiiu li. becnine iUiliy.nl.
most of eastern Europe received civilization thiMii^'li cent lal Kiinipi', ami
was thus the last part of tho grunil divisii-u lo become ■■ivili^ed. t'n
this aooount, ami also because it has ofti'ii bi'eii mvaiUtl hy ludr liihc.-i
of tho yellow race fntiii Asia, it is not so lii.uliiy civili/.ed in-day as the
western half of Europe, By far the givater part of 1lii> population aie
Aryans, but there arc Tiiany people
of the Turkish branch of the yellow
race in all these countries.
Throughout most of Eastern Eu-
rope tho Greek form of the Chiistiiiu
religion is the prevailing faith, but
in Turkey and Bulgaria very many
of the people are Mohammedans.
PARTS OF TUB EARTH.
y peopit? to lie fed, however,^. -.^
9 insuHicient and much f oo JIF-^ ^
toitd crops an- raised. Then' are so ma
that in most of the countries the crops a
must be imported.
The gn-at agricultural regions are (1) the northern lowland from the* ,— ^
Atlantic eastward through southern Hussia, and (2) the broad fertile^^ g-.
valleys of ihu Danube, the I'o, the Hhone, and the streams of the Spanish f ~ ?
))eiiiiisulu. The iioilhern region, including tho plains of Hungary, yield.'^^^c^^
three fourths of the rye, ojits, wlieat, barley, and potatoes, and is thechiet j^^
fo(Hl- prod III- ing belt. Other crops of this l>elt are beets, beaus, cabbages ^^
mill the fibers tlax nucl hemp. In soulberu Eurojio lai^' quantities or ^~^ ;
beaus, gallic, and other vegetobh's are riiiscd, aud much graiu, including \*~,
com atid some rice, but the chamctcrislic crop is tliu grape, for this j ^ ,"
the world's greatest wine- and raisiu-pi'oduciug region. Other im|>orlaii ^r-,^
crops of MUithi-ru Kiimpe are ohves. oninges, leracms, figs, almonds, uu- ^ ^
cliesliiut^. Mulberry tn-es an.' also cultivated to afford food for
Honiis, which arc extensively rean-ii.
VnCETATlOX
S::::: ,^,./ f y^:V :.■■■'-'■' ^^r)..
class of a
I on archies are
Government. Wiiilo the
govoriimoiits of most Ameri-
can countries are repuMu-au
ill fonn, there are in Eiiropo
but two imiiovtaiit ri'imblies,
France and Switzerland. All
the othur large eouutries are
moIlal^5hiti!j.
In Franco and Switzerland the
ruler is eleetcil from among the com-
mon iieople to hold otllceforadeliiiiti'
leugUi of time. In the monarchies the ruler belongs to the
tocrats or nobles, w a blinwl relation of a previoiLs ruler,
some other country, and holds ofllco for life. Most of the ii
limited (p. 36) ; oidy liussia and Turkey are nbsiJuto or de^piilic.
Gn^at Britain, Germany, Russia, France, Auslria-Hungary, and Italy
are the strongest and UKist |>opulous nations of Europe, and are often
called tho " Six Great Powers."
Supplemental Work, liead " The St.iry of the Greeks" and " The
Story of the Romans," by H. A. tJuerb<-r ; " The Slory of Itoland " and
"Tho St-iry of Siegfried," by Janies Baldwin; " Norsi> Stories retold
fromtheEddas,"by Hamilton W. Mabiejaud "The l'assiu[j of Arthur,"
iu Baldwin';! School Iteadets, 5th and (Jth years.
INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS.
All the fjreat hidustrics are aotively imrsiu'd in PJunij
but by far the largest part of the workiiij,' iii>iniliilion
engaged in agrieultiin>, maiuifae taring, and I'oiuniene.
A^Culture affords occupation to mon' tliati half t
people. It is jmrsued iu nearly all i)arts of Kiinipo exee
in tho e.xtreme north and on tho more riiggtHl sloj.cs.
In cfisteni Eunipe the light rains fall mostly diiriu;,' the summer,
that crops grow well ; nhmg the soutlicm coasts, where the suniniers i
dry, irrigation is extensively practiced; and minty of the sl.'e]i hillsii
in all regions are len^aced and planted. Thus more ihau twice as mi
laud is cultivated us iu the United States, and much larger ipiautities
'^^^- '^W^ir^i
Herding. Tliere are ftiur times as many sheop raises. ■
Kini>iH> as in the ITniled States, twice as many ealtl ^,
and about as many liogs ; bvj/
in jtroinjrtion to the [wjiul^j,
tiou herding is not so iiiipor-
tant an industry as it is in
our country. Only two of the
countries of Europe produte
nioro meat than the i)eople
consume, and several have tn
import large quantities.
The great cattle and slieep pas-
tuns and dairj- farms are mostly Id
the northern food belt, but boiik c»t-
tle and very mauy sheep and gosls
an; pastured in the highland npons.
Hogs are raised mostly in the for-
ests, where they fatten on acorns,
lioechnuts, and other masL
/
Fishing. The long coast
line of Etu'ope invites many
people to eugagii in tliis industry, and the product is more
than twifc as great its in tlio Unitinl States.
The most valuable lisheriesare those of the uortliwest coast, wfaicli yield
great quantities of hernng,
western coast waters afford
the seas and rivers iu the si
from the Tt»> of which ca\ian
The richest cond fishiries-
mahdnnd and of the islands
vl, and oysters. The luulb-
ianliiics, ancho\-ies, and funny fish, wfcifc
iitheast yield great quantities of sturfteon,
of the world are along the shores of ll>^
n the western half of the McditerraneiUi;
ust exteUsive sjiouge flsfaeries are la the eastern half
and the best and i
of this sea.
Lumbering. Tho forests of Europe, though nearly
twice as extensive as tliows of the United States, yield less
than half as much lumber.
The chief luu.ber regions an- nortli.Tii Russia, the Scandinavian V*'^'
iusuhi, and the woiHlcd slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, but ii'O**
of the highland ivgious in soulhem Kumiie arc well wooded.
In i:early all the countries the forests belong to the government »**
to a few ..f the noble fiimilies, and ar<- carefully preserved from destr***''
tiou. ( Inly a c-ertaiii amount of limlier may be cut each year, and yo»»**
tr.>es are plauteil I., n'j.lace ihon. that arc cut down. The dead timl**^*'
windfalls, aud fagots are galli.ri.<l f.u- fuel, and thus, especially in west^"^
Europe, many of these ciilrivat.^d forests have come to rewniblc gr** _.
open gii)ves. wiiboul underbrush and with the trees pluntwl iu ro*'* ''
II is only iu ihi' Balkan plulcuu that the forests are being destroyed ^^'^
indiscriminate cultiug as iu the United States.
122
PARTS OF THE EAKTH.
BRITISH ISLES
S S i!5 lio iio 5* ^_^j^^fjDini"
""■Wii^y''.'^
tho jintiy or ilivv, liesdili's ilrilliiifr '■
tTv vcnr iliiriii^r n in
wh IirafTf r
HihI, ]iij<l ivliilc tbus i^iij.raKu(l lit' •'urii
iLoIhiiif; III Ijis ri'^^ulii
r tra,i-.
pr
Supplemental Work. Mak.' iMiwiniii.nu
[H'liplo oi' Kurope prat-ticc ftjrricultun- ; Imv
liinil iu Pjiirope compiircs witli tliiit in Ihc I'n
of Out twii cimi[>nr<': tlu' li.<liinij iiriMlni't:
liinilior prmliK^t; the mim-ral "iiljiut ; tin-
liiinils. and the- amuant of tb- product : tlii
railrnails; lh(- ^lopiilatiim, v.-i'nllh and aviTai;
' showintr wlint part of the
r the aiiioiuit of <-idtiv-atvd
itfd Sfatc:s; how ill.; catt!.'
till' <-KU-it\, of fonrsts, and
ininilx'r of iimiiiifai'turini;
' troniini'rei;. Khippiii^, and
V .■u:liilii,rs.
CENTRAL EUROPE.
UNITED KINGDOM OP GREAT BRITAIN"!
AND IRELAND. This kingdom indudef all th^ *-.
BritiMh Isli's. By wliat wiiters un- tliew.' iajps sur- -
rounded ! Naniii flu- lur^ist isUnd ; the next in m
size. Hy what wntcra an- thi's<; iKliinds scpamttrd ! 1
Naiiiti thn'o sniull ^iniiips utT the north <»)a^t of -
(ir(>at Britain ; oti>' ^rqup oft tht: south co&st.
Nftmc thrii' ti^-at itidi'iitutioas of the i-n.-it cnnst
of (iri'Ht Britain; four of tlip west coast; three
on the west cinist of In-laml. In what part of the
Britisli Iett>s aru th(.>rn ld};hliinds T Name the chit'f
nin^'f's. How do tlii'Nt; hiKhlaiiilsoonaiiarc iuhi'itfbl
u-itli tlii> Appalachian MountainH t The- hills of
Ircliiiid (M^ciir n>'ar tho cooMt. The low interior
plain eoiitaiiii many KwampH (ir bofrs. The Shet-
land Islands and the H.l>rides are high and rocky.
The < 'rkiu-yM iire low and fertile.
Why is the eliniate of these islands milder and
inoiirter than tliat of the eastern coast of .America
in the sumo latitude I The eliinate of Irelaml is
estH'cially mild and moist. 'Why?
Wlial three countries are ineludeil in the island
of (Jrent Britain! lJi-»orilw tho nurfaee of eaeh.
Nituui four rivers of Kn^kind ; two of Scotland :
thn-e of Inland.
Whii'h of the Uniteil Stat^-s in al>out as larfn* «*
Kn^rlaud T \Vhieh is alxmt the size of Ireland t
Which is about thi^ si/.i> of Scotland t How does
the [Hipulation of I'Uch of these states compan:
with that of Ihf jjart of the British Isli* which it*.
alxiut eipials in hvh- i The British Isles as a vbol^^
art.' densely peopled, and England is oneof the mu^^
densely peopled countries iu the world.
Most of t)io Iiiinl ill tlie British Islea is
owiH'il liy a i'oiiiinirativt'ly fow rii-h fivw-
ilif's of iiobk's anil Imt one f<>iii-th of \A'^*
under croi^is. A iiiu<?li larjier pvopurt io^^
is iiscil for piistiinigc, mid ciittlo .^n'
slu'i'ii raising arc iniportuut iiiihisti ^^^
(ircat Itritaia producing nmro miif t"
and wiinl tlian any otlifr country in -i^-"
r<ti>e excci.t Russia. (Irain, liay, vefte^^*"
Iilcs, tKuno fruits, and iniu'ii tlairj- pi — <"'
ucts and meat iini prodiici-d, Imt oiiL J'
Kiiiall part of tiin pcopk> arw (Migajroi"i i'
airriiMiltiu-:il and pastoral pin-suits, r ■"'
fooilof all kinds liHH to l.c iiuportt'd "
liirtit' quautitii'S.
Mor.' tlian liaif of tlic woikitif; p..;:^!!
lation is i'it<,'ii;,'c.l in iiiiiiinrai-turiii}:, r:^"'
a larj,'!' part of iho rcniaiudcr in .-i-^n
miTi'c and niinin.i;, all tiicsc industi t
licinj; iiiosi ai'tivi' in Enjriaiid. In ^'
value of liiT niiinufacturcs (ircat H*^ '"
xcortls all other .'ountri.'.s ex.-i'pt the I'tiiled Stat^:*
n till.' uiakiiiK of i-otton and woolen cloth she grca -^
j exceeds all otlier countries in the world. Tho foal a.*'-'
I iron mines rd' the Brilish Isles are chiefly in northern a-*^ -
■ southwestern Kni;lan>l and in southern AVnli^s. Tho c^ "^
I fii'l.ls, thouirhuiueh smaller than those of the United Stilt -:=•
j yield ahiiut as nuich coal, wliih^ the iron and steel mat: "*
I factures exceed those of any oilier countrj' except t '^
1.1 i
114
PABTS OP THE KARTH.
711111 two chains are in the northern part of the p]atean of Uon-
goliaf What chain forma its eastern border 1 What is this chain
called north of the Amur ifiverl These chains are lower than those
nearer the Pamir plateau, but the snow-clad peaks of the Altai range
aro three miles high.
What three chains form the northern border of the highland west of
Pamir plateau 1 The Hindu Knah is a snow-capped range about four
miles high. The other chains are tower, but they contain lofty peaks,
and the upper valleys of the Caucasus are filled with glaciers. What
chains border the plateau of Iran on the east and on the southwest T
What plateaus and ranges compose the Eurasian highland in south-
em Europe 1 Of these the Alps and the PjTeneea are anow-clad, and
have peaks between two and three miles higli.
What two mountain ranges are in the great northern lowland f Those
ranges arc scarcely a mile high. The Urals are a gradual swell in the
great plain. The Riolen Mountains slope gradually tu the east, but
their abrupt western slope forms the bold, rotrky coast of the Scandi-
navian peninsula. Great glaciers descend from them to tlie sea.
What plateau occupies the peninsula of India T It is composed of old
outflows of lava like those of the Columbia plateaus.
Earthquakes are not uncommon throughout the Eurasian highland,
and they indicate that its upheaval may still be in progress. There are
many old volcanic rucks in the highland region, but comparatively few
active volcanoes on the mainland of Eurasia, and these are widely sep-
arated — one ia on the Italian peninsula, two or three near the Cas-
pian Sea, one or two northeast of the Pamir plateau, and several on
the peninsula of Kamchatka. About 150 active volcanoes, however,
occur on the long chain of mountainous islands which rise from the sub-
merged edge of the continental plateau east and southeast of Asia.
This regrion is the greatest center of volcanic activity in the world.
It is sliaken by earthquakes almost constantly. Probably no other part
of the continental plateau is being upheaved so rapidly.
The Lowlands. Moat of the gi-eat nortliern lowland
has an elevatiou of less than 500 feet, and in places it is
actually below sea level. Find such a place. In general
its flat surface is broken only by the low bluffs which
border the broad flood plains of the streams.
The detached lowland plains to the east and south of the
great highlands are composed of alluvium washed from the
bordering mountains, and their upheaval is thought to
have been comparatively recent.
rainl What is peculiar about the winds of sonthem and sontheastem
AsiaT (p. 26.) What eSect have these winds and the highlands upon
the ninfall of this region ; upon the rainfall of central and southwest- .
em Asiat What are the caoses of the moderately heavy and the ti^l^
rainfall in western and northern Eurasia f
Climate. Review the lesson on the heat belts <pp. 24, 25). In what
five heat belts does Eurasia he f What pari of Eurasia lies in each heat
beltf To which other grand division is Eurasia similar iu the general
distribution of its heat belts T Review the lessons on winds and rain-
fall (pp. 26, 27). Where are the largest regions of heavy or moderately
heavy rajnfati in Eurasia f Where are the regions of light rains or no
Because of the gi-eater extent of Eurasia the extrenz^es
of temperature in the interior are greater than in Nolt— th
America, Why f The coldest winters in the world oe*^ ur
in northeastern, and nearly the hottest summers in sou^fch-
wcstern Asia. Thus, with tlie exception of the souths— rn
and the western i)arts, Eurasia is characterized by exce-^ss-
ive temperature chanjjes diu'ing the year. Even in t^ be
hot belt there is a chilly season when tlie dry winds bl< >w
southward from the liiglilands. Tlio summer heat a^=nd
the winter cold in the west are tempered by the p »&■
vailing winds from the Atlantic.
In the south and southeast the monsoi>n winds (p. — ^6)
blowing from the sea in summer yield coi)ious rainf all
on the seaward sIo[>es, while little rain falls at otlr^ icr
seasons, when the winds blow seawanl. The sea win-^^ds
lose most of their moisture on the seaward slopes of t-~^h6
ranges bordering Uie great highlands, so tliat the jilatea — »us
and lowlands behind these ranges receive little or no ra^^hi
and are therefore desei'ts. The westerly winds, with th^^*''"
cyclonic storms, yield ample rainfall at nearly all soaso -""s
o\er western and central Europe, but have little moistu—^^^
left when they reach nor'tliern Asia.
Drainage. Beginning in the Khinghan Monntains trace a contin^*^""
ous hne aroiind a great central region of Eurasia whose drainage dc^^^^^^"*^
not reach the ocean or any of its arms. Lo(;alo this region on the rai— ^*''"
fall map, and tell why it is a region of " interior drninago." Does a^ -°J
ram fall in this region T Di«!s the raiuf.ill give rise to any stream. -^•*'
What becomeij of these streamsT (p. 15.) Is the water of these L
fresh or saltt Wliy 1 What is the largest slieet of water in this regioc
What two large tributaries has it ! If tho rainfall of Central Asia w
sufBciently heavy, part of this great interior Imsin would be drained ***
the Pacific, part to the Indi;in Ocean, and part to the Atlantic Ooer^'*"
through the Caspian, lilack, and Mediterranean seas. What other pa-^^^
of Eurasia sends no drainage to the sent What three lai^ rivers ^ "'
Eurasia flow to the Arctic Oceaut Wliat four flow to the Paci^W-^*
Ocean! Name four that flow to the Indian Ocean. Name three th»- *
flow to the Atlantic Ocean, throufrli tli.! Black Sea. Do the Eumsi^^^"
rivers flowing to the Arctic and thosi> flowing to the Indian Ocean howiT— ^
their sources near together T Why not t
115
As so large a part of Eurasia receives light or scanty
rainfall, none of its streams equals in volume the great
rivers of America. On the moist southeast slope the
river basins ai-e comparatively small, while the large
basins of the north receive only a light raiufall. Thus
the Yangtze, which is the longest and largest river of
Eurasia, is not much larger than the St. Lawrence in
volume, though the four large rivers of the north are
but little smaller. lu general the streams in the south-
east and in the west are much larger in proportion to
their length than those in the north and in the south-
west. Why I
The Caspian Sea is about five times as large as Lake
Superior, and is the largest lake in the world. The evap-
oration from it is so rapid that its sui-face lies about
eighty-five feet below sea level, though it receives the
Ural and the great Volga, a river as large as the Mac-
kenzie. The land barrier which separates the Black Sea
from the Caspian, north of the Caucasus, is so low that
if the Black Sea were to rise ninety feet it would overflow
into the Caspian.
The two large and many small lakes east of the Caspian are all higher
than the Caspian Sea, but because of the rapid evaporation none of them
can bverfiow its ba^. What lai^e lake is in the Yenisei basin t It is
aboat twice the size of Lake Ontario, and is the lai^^est fresh-water lake
in Eurasia. There are very many smaller fresh>water lakes, as well as
extensive swamps, on the low, flat surface of the northern plain, par-
ticnlarly near the central part. West of the Urals the sorface is covered
with the drift of the old Scandinavian glacier (p. 20), and greatly re-
sembles the great Canadian lowland. Name the two largest lakes in this
Supplemental Work. Draw eircles representing the western and
Mut«ra hemispheres, and sketch North and South America, and Eurasia.
Draw on a lai^r scale
n map of EuriLsia, naming the
cliief indentnfiuns nii<l peninsulas, the
chief mountains nnd rivers, and indies*
ting the chief dix'ides. Modtl Eurasia. Write
a comparison of the climates of central^ southern,
id western Eurasia.
VEGETATION AND ANIMALS.
Review the lesson on distribution of life (pp. 28-29). Why do dense
forests grow in southeastern Eurasia 1 What part of Eurasia is covered
with vart open forests 1 What is the rainfall of this region 1 What
part is an open grassy region or a desert T Why 1 What two great life
regions oocupy most of Eurasia t (map, p. 28.) What physical feo-
tores form the barrier between tliese regions t Why an there brottd
trandtional regions between them In the east and west but not in the
center t Review the lessons on the Oriental and Eurasian life regions
(p. 31), and mention some of the charaotcristic plants and animab of
each region.
The Arctic coast of Eurasia, like that of America, is
bordered by dreary tundras in which mosses and lichens
form the principal vegetation. The broad belt of forests
south of the tundras is composed chiefly of cone-bearing
evergreen trees, such as larohes, pines, and firs, but is
broken by many great treeless areas and swamps covered
with birch and willow thickets. In the southwestern part
of this belt are fine forests of oak, beech, and other hard-
wood trees. Many years ago this forest belt extended
westward to the Atlantic, but it has long since been cleared
away from the fertile lowlands in that region.
The principal large animals of the forest region are rein-
deer, elk, and bear, but there are many wolves, and very
many small fur-bearing animals, as ermines, martens, sa-
bles, squirrels, and foses.
In the drier region south of the forest belt, both in the
lowlands and on the plateaus, are vast grassy prairies, or
steppes, which merge into the exceedingly dry and barren
deserts. These steppes and deserts form the characteristic
feature of central Eurasia from the Mediterranean nearly
to the Pacific.
Almost the only forests throughout this whole region grow on the
moister sides of the mountain ranges. Oaks, beeches, chestnuts, cedars, <
/.rsCLISPHLASANT
Some frnjiwi' of BurasU.
lAnrels, and myrtlea are common trees on the lower and moiater slofies,
v\ale flra, pines, and other trees yielding resinous gums grow at greater
elevationB.
This is the true home of the ancestors of the horse, the
cow, the camel, the sheep, the goat, and the hog, aud great
numbers of all these domesticated auiraals are raised
here, while wild auiraals closely related to them are the
most characteristic animals. There are many kinds of
wild sheep and goats, antelope^ and gazelles, wild boars,
camels, asses, and wild oxen, including oxlike, hairy yaks,
and hairless buffaloes. There are several kinds of bears
among the mountains, while the tiger and the leopard
wander northward over the transitional regions as far as
to the Amur River in the east aud to the southern shores
of the Caspian Sea in the west-
The great deserts are almost entirely devoid of surface water £or hun-
dreds of miles. In places, however, the ground water eomes near
enongji to the surface to supply the roots of plants. In such a place an
oaiia of vegetation is formed in the midst of the barren desert. Some
oases are many miles in extent and contain springs and running
streams, but others are quite small and afford water to the thirsty traveler
only by means of shallow wells which have been dug down to the under-
ground snpply.
Violent winds at times sweep over the open desert, raising dense
oloads of dust and sand, which are carried forward in such immense
quantities as nearly to bnry any unfortunate travelers overtaken by the
storm. Because of sueh windstorms some parts of almost all deserts are
bare and stony, being swept nearly clean of the surface detritus, whil» J •" *
other parts are deeply covered with shifting sand dunes.
The dense forests of southeastern Asia have been muclci*^'
reduced by the crowded population, and are now confinedfc*^^
to tracts least favorable to cultivation — as marshy low— ""^^
lands or rough hilly districts. These forests are much-*=*— '
denser aud more luxuriant than those of the north. In.c:K^l
the lowlands are many kinds of palms, bamboos, and trees^ ^^
yielding India rubber, spices, aud dyewoods, together withxJcth
pitcher plants and hundreds of vines growing between tlieE»-«:?e
trees, matting them together and forming with the raulifef ^
undergrowth an impenetrable jungle.
Here the rhinoceros and the wild boar make thei^^./j.
homes. Tigers and several kinds of leopards also lit^t-g
in the jungle. These fierce animals wander out into t^rje i
cultivated lands at night and kill hundreds of people ew^rj J
year, besides thousands of sheep and cattle. Many mc»re
people, however, are killed by the bite of the cobra, a ven-
omous snake which abounds in India.
On the higher lands the forests are composed of na^ny
fine timber trees, of which the toon, sal, teak, satinwood,
and sandalwood are the most valuable. In these for^**
are found elephants, bears, monkeys, and wild cattle.
Supplemental Work. Make lists of the Eurasian plants and a)
which you have seen. Describe one plant and one animai^ '' '"
which you have not seen.
'^^W'
HAN.
What is the population of Asia; of Europol (p. 157.) How does
the population of Eurasia compare witli that of tht; whole world ; with
that of the whole of America f Has Eurasia or North America the
denser population t Eurasia is the most denKt-ly peopl(.><l of all tlie grand
dirimona. If the people were evenly distributed over the land surface of
the worid Eurasia would have but half of its present popiUalion. In
what parts is the population dense or very dense 1 Nearly four fifths of
the people of Eurasia live in these three rejnons. Why arc northern,
central, and southwestern Asia not so well adapted for a dense popula-
tion T What two races live in Eurasia f In what parts do tlio whites
live cbieflyt Locate the homes of five peoples of tho white mce. ^Vhat
people of the yellow race extends westward between the Europeans and
other Aryan peoplest Locate tue homes of two other peoples of the
yellow race. Keriew the lesson on man's culture, pp. 34, 35.
By far the gi-eater part of the people in all the thickly
settled regions of Eurasia have reached some degree of
i'i\'ilization. It is only iu the dense forests of the islands
and mainland in the extreme southeast and along the
OPE. 117
bleak Arctic shores that a few savage tribes are found.
Moat of the native tribes in the sparsely settled northern
lowland are far advanced through the stage of barbarism.
Unlike America, Eurasia has been the home of civilized man ever
^nce the beginning of history, for it was probably in this grand division
that man first became civilized. People were already civilized more
than 4000 years af^ in tlie plains of Mesopotamia, India, and China, as
well as in the fertile valley of the Nile just west of tho Isthmus of Suez.
No one has yet been able to tell certainly in which of these localities
civilization appeared first. This early civilization, however, was very
imperfi'ct, and it improved ho slowly that the people of these ro^ous are
not yiit hi^fhly civilized.
More than 3000 years ago civilization reached the Grecian peninsula,
and thence it (frailually spread through western Eurasia. This western
civilization improved so rapidly that the Arjans of Europe became more
highly civUized than the other people of Eurasia. As they advanced in
civilization their wants l)ecamo greater, and they sought new and better
comnier(-ial routes by which their wants might bo supplied. In this
xearch their ships sailed completely around the world, and they dis-
covered southern Africa, the unknown continents of America and Aus-
traUa, and tho islands of the sea. They planted colonics in these and
other lands, thus carrying their civilization over the globe. This civili-
zation has constantly advanced tmtil now tho European Aryans and
their descendants in the new lands which they have settled are by far
the most enlightened people in tlie world.
Supplemental Work. Write a comparison of eastcm and western
Eurasia iu density of population, races, and culture of inhabitants.
TOPICS ON EURASIA.
I. NoRTHBBN Plain. Coast. Surface. Climate. Draint^^e. Life:
ve);etable; animal. Man: density; r&ces; civilization.
II. Eastern and Sootbern Plains. Names. Formation. Cli-
mate. Drtunage. Life: vegetable; animal. Man: density; races;
history ; civilization.
III, PIastesm HlGHLANnB. Plateaus. Mountains. Climate. Life.
IV. Western Hiohlanhs. Plateaus. Mountains. Climate. Life,
v. Islands. Western. Eastern. Chief groups. Movement. Climate.
Life.
EUROPE.
B^firre gtudyinff the foUowinff ktmn on Pmple and Countries take the Map
-ExereiM on EuTope at the top of page 119.
PEOPLE AND COUNTRIES.
People. Europe, though little larger than the United
States, contains five times a.s many iuhabitants, and hence
is much more densely peopled. In what part is the popu-
lation dense or very dense f Compare these regions in ex-
tent with the corresponding regions in the United States
^map, p. 57). Where is the population of Europe simrse f
Countries. Europe is composed of twenty or more in-
[endent states or countries, in nearly every one of which
ople differ from those of tlie others in language, cus-
[, and standards of living.
k variety in language and customs in neighboring localities is one
■most atrikiug and oharaoteristic differences between the popula-
f Europe and that of the United States. The difference arises
Xap Ezerdse on Etirope. The Ural and Cancasas moantUDB and
the Gaspiao and Blank seas are often conwdf";.!! the boundaries be-
tween Europe and Asi^ What is the most northern point of the Euro-
pean mainland T What point on the American mnjnland ia in about thn
Bame latitude t What point on the eastern coast of America is in about
the same latitude as the most southern point of the European tnaiulandf
flow does Europe compare with the United States in size t
From the Ural MountaioB trace the divide between the northern and
■outhem dopes of Europe. In what physical di^Tsinn does the east-
era half of this divide lief The western half f Into what aims of the
sea is the northern slope drained! Name two rivers that flow into the
Baltic Sea; two that flow iato the North Sea; one that flows into the
Bay of Biscay. Into what seas ia the southern slope drained! Trace
the divide in Europe of the Caspian basin; of tlie Black iie& basin.
Name the two lai^^ rivers of tho Caspian basin ; Iho three larpest of
the Blai-k &'a basin. Wliat river flows into tho Adriatic f What two
flow into the western part of the Meiiitermnranf
Through what part of Europe docs the prcat Eurasian highland ex-
tend f What mountains and what pliins arc in the Danube basinf What
mountains form the southern divide of tht< Iwsinf Wliat mountains
extend south into tho Grecian peninsula f Wliat inouutains traverse tho
Italian peninsula t What mountains are between the Alps and tho Pjtg-
neesT Name two ran^s of tiio Spanish plateau. Wliat mountains are
in northwestern Europe! What group of large islands is near the west
Goastr By what b Great Britain separated from the mainhindt
Supplemental Work. Sketch Europe, locating its chief mountains,
plateaus, plains, divides, rivers, baj-s, and islands. Model Europe.
munly from the different ways in which the two regions were civilized.
The Unite<l States received civiliiMlion through the overrunning and
settling of the country, during the last 300 years, by a vast number of
highly civihzed, white foreigners, most of whom used the English lao-
^utkfte. This foreign population absorbed or drove off the comparatively
few native Indians and replaced barbarism with its own old and foreign
civilization. Civilization, on the contrary, was itself very yoimg and
X-ude when it first appeared in Europe thousands of years ago, and it
spread among the many native tribes so slowly that the barbarous na-
tives themselves gradually became civilized, and then, as the centuries
passed, they invented the more modem civiliaition which was carried to
America. As among the Anierienn Indians, so among the barbarous
tribes of Europe there were many native languages. In the United
States the native languages and eustoins were swept away with the
Indians, but in Europt; various tribes retained their languages and
many of their customs as they gradually advanced in civihzation.
The languages and customs of neighboring tribes were often some-
)PB. 119
what nnular but were qnite different from those in distant r^ons, for
few people traveled far from home in those days. It was only when
some tribe conquered and settled among another people that distant tribes
mixed together. In such cases both of the old languages gradually disap-
peared, while from their blendii^ a new language came to be used by
the descendants of the mixed people.
The states of our Union are merely political subdiviaons formed
mainly for the convenience of local government— many of them having
been markeil out on paper with straight and regular boundaries before
they were settled by civilized men. Most of the countries of Europe, how-
ever, are regions inhabited by people who during ages of oceupatinn and
contact have become more closely related to one another in language,
customs, and history, than they are to the people of the other countries.
Hence the boundaries of European countries are very irregular.
Soutbwestera Europe. Name five countries of the European mainland
which have a seacoast and which lie west of the Khinc and tho Adriatic
Sea, These aro called Latin countries liecause the languages spoken in
them are derived from the Latin language used by the ancient Romans.
A Viking's ship.
The Latins were a people of Italy who early received ei\Thzation from
the Grecian peninsula. They built Rome, which 2000 years ago was the
largest and most magnificent city of the world. They conquered and
taught civilization to all the tribes of Europe southwest of the Rhine,
and added that region to the great Roman Empire, which extended east-
ward through southern Europe and far into southwestern Asia.
The Christian religion was brought to Rome by the Apostles shortly
after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and Rome to this day is tho resi-
dence of the Pope, the head of tho Cathobc Church; and this form of
religion still prevails in all the Latin countries.
Central Europe. Trace a straight line from southeastern Italy to
North Cape. What seven countries lie wholly or mostly between this
line and Uio Latin countriesT Most of the hmguages in this region, as
well as tho English language, which Is used in the BriUsli Isles, resemble
the old German language, and so these countries are often called Ger-
manic or Teutonic countries.
The old Teutonic tribes remained barbarians long after tho Roniana
had conquered and civihzed the Latin countries, for though the Hoinans
often fought the Teutons they could never conquer them, but were at
last conquered by them. Then followed the " Dark Ages," during which
the barbarians overran the civilized Latin countries, bnt in doing so
learned civilization from the conquered people. Two Teutonic tril>ea,
tlie Angles and the Saxons, whose home was near tho shores of Iho North
Sea, crossetl to Great Britain and settled in the soutlieni part, which
came In be calle<l Angle-land or England, while Iho bieniled laiiguHge of
these settlers bwame Anglo-Saxon or early English. The Iribes of tbe
Scandinavian and Danish peninsulas were fearless sea rovers colled
Northmen and Vikings. They overran all the coasts of the North Sea
120
PARTS OP THE EAKTH.
and the Engli><h Channel and discovered and settled Ictland and Green-
land. They probably even viait«d New Euglaud, 500 years before Co-
Lnmbus reached the West Indies,
The Christian religion wa« spread tbrougliout central Europe by
priests and monks belonging to the Catholic Cliurcli, but now the I'rotes-
tant faith prevails iu all the Gennantc countries, except Aii-stria, whjeh
is still mainly Catholic.
Eastern Europe, What great country occupies moBt ef eastern Eu-
rope 1 What six countries occupy the southeast^-ni piirtf Tlie ciistem
part of Europe is called Slavonic Europe because nearly all of tlie
languages used show a blending with the Inngiuifre used by the Hlavs,
a great tribe that once lived northeast of the tari'athian llountairir:.
Although Greece was the first European retriou to bi'fntne civilized,
moat of easteni Europe received civilization thii-ugh ceiilia! I'lun-pe, iind
was thus the last part of the grand division lo btiMniio civilized. Vn
Uua account, and also bcciiaw it liaa ofti'u been ijivadetl by rude tribes
of the yellow rae« from Asia, it is not so highly tivilinod to-day as the
western half of Europe. By far the greater part of the popnlntion art-
Aryans, but there aro many people
of the Turkish branch of the yellow
race in all these countries.
Throughout most of Eastern Eu-
rope the Greek form of the Christian
religion is the prevailing faith, but
in Turkey and Bulgaria very many
of the people are Mohammedans.
Government. Wliilu tlio
goverimicuts of m ^t Anion
can eouiiti es aio lei ublicau
iu form tlioic aio m Liiropc
but two iiDjioitiiit ri-iiiblics
France aiid Swit/eilaii 1 All
the othoi laigo countries uic
monarcliies
In Era e a d S itnerland the
ruler is el 1 1 1 from a ong the co
monpeopl t holdothc foradtfii lU
leugUi of t me In the m i&n hies the rultr belo gs to tht cluh, of ar »
tocrats or nobles, is a blood n^lation of a previous ruler, of his own or
some other country, and holds ofQco for life. Most of the monarchies are
limited {p. 3G) ; only Itussia and Turkey are absolute or despotic.
Great Britain, Oermany, Russia, France, Austria- Hungary, and Italy
aro the strongest and must populous nations of Europe, and are often
called the " Six Great Powers."
Supplemental Work. l{ea<l"Tho Story of the Greeks" and "The
Story of the Romans," by H. A. Guerber ; " The Stin-y of Koland " and
"The Story of Si^ried," by Janus Baldwin; "Norse Stories retold
CromtheEddas,"by Hamilton W.Mabie;aud "The Pasiiiug uf Arthur,"
in Baldwin's School Headers, 5th and Cth years.
INDUSTRIES AHD PRODUCTS.
All thu groat industries aio actively jJurRucd in Enropo,
but by far the largest part of tho working iiopulatioii is
engaged iu agriculture, manufacturing, and coninienre,
i^riculture aflfoi-ds occupation to mum thiiii lialf tlio
people. It is pursued in nearly all ]jarts of Em-ojn! excej)!
in tho t'xtreme north and on tho more nigged slopes.
In eastern Europe tlie light rains fall mostly during tin? summer, so
that crops grow well ; along the southern coasts, whent thci sumiiiers are
dry, irrigation is extensively practiced ; and many of the stet<p hillsides
in all regions are terrace<l and planted. Thus more than twice as much
land is cultivated as in tho United States, and much hirger quantities of
food crops are raised. There are so many people to be fed, however,
that in most of the countries the crops are insufficient and much food
must be imported.
Tlie great agricultural regions are (1) the northern lowland from the
Atlantic eastward through southern Uussis, and (2) the broad fertii\«
valleys of tho Danube, the I'o, the Ithone, and the streams of the Spaivuli
peninsula. Tho northern region, including tho plains of Hungary, yieU^
three fourtlisof the r>'e, oats, wheat, bariey, and potatoes, and is the cL&Jf^
food -producing belt. Other crops of this belt are beets, beans, cabba^^e^
and the fibers flax and hemp. In southern Europe largo quautitiet^^ ^^
beaini, garlic, and other vegetables arc raised, and much grain, inolui^K^ti^
com and some rice, but the characteristic crop is the grape, for thi:^ _s '^
the world's greatest wine- and ruisin -producing region. Other impori -_^*n^
crops of soutlwru Europe aro olives, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, ^^ flD&
chestnuts. Mulberry trees are also cultivated to aQord food for be .^silk-
worrus, which are extensively reared.
Herding. Tliere aro four tinios as many sheep rai^^ _seA
in Eurojn! as in tho United States, twice as many eattS' i^tle,
and about as many hogs ; tJT hut
in propoitiou to the popu .Kuilflr
tion herding is not so intpc» «i>or-
tant an iudustry as it is i iu
our eouiitiy . Oidy two of t -z*" the
countries of Euroi>e i»rodiLK"-Mice
more meat than tho peopj^^^^ple
consume, and se\'eral have « to
inijiort largo quantities.
The great cattle and sheep p^^«n>Bs-
turcs and dairy farms are mostly ^-^ '"
the northern food belt, but some ca**-^^*'"
tie and very many sheep and goa.^^*'*'*
arc pastured iu the highland regiont^^**"*-
Hogs are raised mostly in the fe.-*:^* -*"^
ests, where they fatten on
beechnuts, and other mast.
Fishil^. The long C(
lino of Europe invites niau^ «-*iy
people to t.u^a{,u HI this indastry, and tho product is mor*-'*- *™
than twice as great us in tho United States.
The most valuable fisheries are those ()f the northwent coast, whiob yielw K^™
great quantities of herring, cod, mackerel, and oysters. The south -*^^'
weat«m coast waters afford surilines, anuhovies, and tunny fish, viaimS-^ "*
tile seas and rivers in the southeast yield great quantities of sturgeon .c^^*"!
from the roe of which caviare is made.
The richest coral fisheries of the world aro along the shores of tb»*J-^'
mainland mid of the ishinds in the w<'.stern half of the Mediterranean -«:XMi;
and the best and most exteuaivu sponge fisheries aro in the eastern bal£-»3aif
of this sea.
Liunbering. Tho forests of Europe, though nearl -^T/j
twice a.s extensive as those of Iho United States, yield le^s s$
I than half as iiuK-h hnnber.
The chief lumber regions are norilieni Russia, the Scandinavian pc^=-n.
i insula, and tlie woo<le<l slopes of the Carpatliian llountuins, but m^csM
' of thu highland regions in southern Euro]>e aro well wooded.
In i:early all the countries the forests belong to the government flkxid
to a few "f the noble families, and are can'fully preserved from destr*^*-
tiou. Only a <-ertain amount of limlwr may be cut eacli year, and yo'U'%
trees are plaiitt'd to replace those that are cut down. The dva<l tiiiil'**''
windfalls, and fiigots are giilhrriMi for fuel, and thus, especially in west*?*"
Europi>, uiony ..f these cnllivat.'d forests have como to resemble gK"*"'**
open grovis, without und<rbrush and with the trees planted in to**'^"
It is only in tin' Bidkau jibtean that the forests are bt^ng destroyed *-*y
in discriminate cutting as iu the United States.
PARTS OP THE EAKTH.
rv _voar ilurinK « iimch lougor
iiitliing at liis rcffuliir traJi;.
in thff sniiy or navy, hpsidps ilrilliup
puriwil, ami while thus I'ugagud Iii' ear
Supplemental Work. Make illuslratiiiii.>i showiutr ^rhiit pai-t of tho
pooplo of Knropc pra<iliee agi'icultiin: i Imw the tttnimut of <riiltivat<3il
laiiil in Europo eoupari's with that in llii! L'liiti-il Stati-^; li'in- tlio cattlo
»f the two cfnupari'; thi.' fishing' pniilm^t ; Iho i-sti-iit of fort'stK, and
lumlicr prixiapt: the mineral .mtput: t!u' niiniber of maniifai'turiut;
hauiU, and thi.- amount of thi' product: lh<; coiniini-ee, lihippin;^, and
railroailti; tho iwpulation. v.ealthaiid avei-ajre i-aniiujpi.
CENTRAL EITROPE.
ITNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAHI
AND IRELAND. This kingdom includes all \\^
British Isles. By what whUts are these iulea sni-
roundi-d 1 Name the hirirest island ; the uer^ u
sijK'. By what waters are these islands sepaiBt^i
Name three kiiihU irroiips off the north cowf^.
(treat Britain ; one gr()up ufF the south euast.
Name tlin-e gn-at in<li'iituti<ms of tlic east e -^
of (ireat Britain; four of the weitt cnattt ; t^H
on the west coaKt of Iifluiid. In what iiart of
Bi'ilish Isles ani there highlands ? Name the c =
niiip's, Howilothesehi);hlandHeompaTi'inheK.
with the A]>piilacliian Mountains f The hilLs..
Iri'Iaiid oeeur in-ar tlio coast. The low iiile: —
plain contains many snampH or Imp;. The HIS.
land Islands and the Hi'mdes nre hi^jh and rtunja
The Orkneys nn- lov,- and fertile.
Why is the climate of these islandn mililer (»
mnister than that of the eaeimi coast of Anietx
in the same iatitmlet Tho climate of Ii-ehini:--*
(vpifially mild and moist. 'Whyf
What three eonntries are in<-luded in the isl^3
of (irent Britain T Describe the surtaee of ea J
Nanie four rivers of England ; two of Seotlar=9
thn-e ..f Irtlaiid.
Which of the ITnit^-d State's is al>out as lai^ «
Eni;land T Which is a'lont the sixe of Irelan- m
Which is al>tiut the size of 8<.-otlaud f How dc»
the populatiim of ea^^h of these gtat<-s eomp^
with that of th«^ pai-t of the British Isles which J
about equals in si/.e t The British Isles as a wh<^
are densely [Kopled, and England in on(-of the mc»
densely jieopled euuntries in the world.
M<>.st of tho laixl in tliu Hi-itisli Isles
owiiiil byji coniiiarHtivi'ly fi'W rich t'linz:
ilic.'^ i»f iiohle.**, mid Imt oiio t'mirlh nf it
iitiili'r oro^Ks. A ninuii lar}cr.>i' iiroportifc:
is used fiH" piistnnijfc, im<i cuttln aut
shct'p raising arc iitiportaiit imhistrie-f
(Ircat Britain produciiiii; intire mutt<x
hihI wool tlian any other country in Ki-i
rojie exccjit Kus.sia. drain, hay, vogetfj
blcs, sotnt! fniits, and niucli dairy proi'
nets ami incut aro iinnhiccd, Imt only
small part of tho people are eiigage<l i i
aiiricnltiind and jiastoral piifsnitss, jiii*
food of all kinds has to he imported ii
laffje (luaritities.
More than half of the working ]iep"-
lation is engagc'l in inatinfactnring, ill .a
a large part of thi^ remainder in rmsm
nierce am! mining, all tlicric iiKlnstt^S
heing inosf active in Kngland. In t
vitliie of lier mannfai-tnres (ireat lti~
ain exceeds all oilier conntries except the Tnile*! Stat *
and in the making of cotton and woolen clotli she grea*-
exceeds all other oonntrjcs in the woild. The coal t* "■
iron mines ..f the British Isles aiv .-hielly in northern u ^
sonllnvestern F,iighui<l and in sontiiern Wtdos. The f<"^
I fields, llumgii ninch .^maU.T than those of the United Stat«^
yield ahont as niiuth coal, while the iron and steel inal>
I fueturos exceed those of any other eonntry except t*
124
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
factures; and Birmmjlmm and SJipffieltJ, noted for machin-
ery, fiitlury, .niiii lianUvuff. //»// i^ the important seaport
lihiibutgh Cadtle.
for the trade of tliis rogion with the Enro-
fiean mainland. NeivcastleyOn the Tyne, and
Cardiff" are preat shipbuilding and iron-
roan iifaetii ring centers and coal-exporting
points. Ed'mhurfjh., tho seat of the local gov-
ernment of Scotland, and DtiUin, of Ireland,
are important cities, an<l Belfast is the center
of the Ii'ish linen man iif.'i dure.
THE GERMAN EMPIRE. WJmt «a« ftn*] c«u«-
tries bonier tho UormaD F.mpirel (]i. 127.) Di-seribe
itsuurfiice. Nanie five rivtrsof its northern slope; one
of itM Bouthem alojie. Locate its chief niouutikins. Compare it with the
British IhIcs in area and ]i<>pulatioii (p. lo7) ; with Texas. What part
of the United Stales is in tho same latituile t
The southern lialf of the ftennan Empire lies on tho
Alpine plateau, from which liso several groups of low
and much worn volcanic moimtaiiis. The sandy low-
lands of the north are covered with the drift of the old
Scandinavian glacier.
The Rhine is thu ^reat river of Germany. It has cut throii^li the pla-
teau a narrow, picturcsqan valley, whose xtepp side dopes are terraced
for vineyards and are crowned with the niins of old castles. In its lower
oourse tho river has deposited a broad Hood plain, which is covered with
meadows and tortjle fielda-
About nine tenths of all the land in Gonnany is produc-
tive. Large areas are devoted to the cultivation of grain,
and the sandy soil in other jilaees yiehls an abundance
of potatoes and sugar beets. Much of tho southcni high-
land is coveretl with forests, which are an important source
of revenue, and the river valleys are note<l for their vine-
yards. Ryo is tho grain most grown, and the commonest
food of tho people is a dark rye lircad.
Among European countries, CTermany ranks next to
Great Britain in tho pi'oduetion of coal and iron ore; and
it exce(ids all othiM- countries in tho world in the prodin;-
tion of zinc. Ooj)per, lead, silver, wind for glass, clay for
jiorcelain, and salt are ulsc) olitainitd.
Like England, (iorniany is a great nianufactiiring na-
tion. More food products are manufactured than in any
other country except the United States, chiefly liquors and
V)eet sugar. Most of the sugar used in Europe is made in
Germany. The manufacture of woolens, cottons, silks, and
linens ranks next in importance.
Iron and steel and all kinds of hardware are extensively
made, especially in tlie west, and porcelain and wooden
articles are also important manufactures.
Commerce is very active. There are more railroads in
Germany than in any other comitrj' except the United
States. Nearly all the rivers are navigable and are con-
nected by canals. Even the Danube is thus connected
with the Rhine, through the river Main. There is also a
great ship canal through thi' isthmus of the Danish penin-
sula, connecting the
Baltic Sea and the
North Sea.
The Gentian soldierv are
Kaid to be the finest Id Eu-
rope. Every ma n mnst se«-e
in ihe army at Ipast a jt-ar,
and this period of service
may be much extended.
Thf' ( iemians are al»i> cele-
brated for their learning.
The (.ierman Empire
consists of twenty-two sep-
aiatc states, the fret- towns
(if Lubti;k, Bremen, and
Huiiiburt;, and the terri-
tory of Alsace-Lorraine.
The lart^ost of the Htates
is Prussia, whirh iucludes
more than half of the entire population. The King of Fnissia is iiIko the
Emperor, or Knixfr, of (iermnny. He is the chief executive. Tho laws
are made by an imperial parlianient, consisting of a liuniitsrath comiiosed
of members appointed by tho lo(ral ijnvcmnicntH of the various states, and
a Beivlalaff composed of represcutativoH elected by the people.
Many thousand Germans have settled in the tTnited States, and Ger-
man merclifints an> found in neatly all npwly settled wiuntries. TlL*i^.
foreign dependencies nt (Jcnnany comprise extensive regions in Afric**.^^,
possessions in Oeennia, and a settlement in t'liina.
The Ennall Grand Duchy of Luxemhurg, In'twcen Germany and Belgiuir^M:-»ia,
is declared by trt'aty Nrtwecn the Great Powers to tie neutral or ind£^?>.^A>
pendent, but ciimmenrially it is very closely unit4>d with Germany.
Jaunting car, Dublin.
A cuUe OD tlie Rhioe.
126
PAETS OF THE EARTH.
Sweden slopes gradually to the
east, and is covered with glacial
drift. It abounds in lakes aud
■waterfalls, like New England.
Whyt (p. 50.)
Fishing aud lumbering are the
most important industries in Nor-
■way; and agriculture, dairying,
lumbering, and the mining of iron ore in Sweden. The lead-
ing manufactures are wooden ware, hardware, and fish oil.
Most of the trade of these countries is with Great Britain
and Germany. Their commercial fleet is large, but much
of its work consists in carrying goods between other
countries.
Norway and Sweden are under the same k:ng, bat each conntry has iU
own parliament.
The Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes are closeiy related, and are called
Soandinavians. Their languages are much alike. In the north are many
Lapps and Finns who belong to the Turkish branch of the yellow race.
Norway and Sweden are the most sparsely settled countries o£ Eu-
rope, and yet the population is about as dense as in the southeastern
United States. Many of the farmers in the upper Mississippi valley are
natives of the Scandiuavian
Pailiament building, Vie
Name and locate the capital of each country. Stock-
holm, about the size of Buffalo, is the largest city on the
peninsula, and is a center of iron manufacture, Gothen-
burg and Christiania have cotton and woolen factories and
lumber mills. Bergen is the center of a great fish trade.
THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Bound Austria-Hun-
gary. Name its mountain rangeB. What river valley occupies its cen-
tral parti Through what part of the country does the European divide
passi On what waters does the only seacoast of the country border 1
Mountain ranges surround and cross Austria^Hungary,
and nearly inclose the low, fertile plains of Hungary. The
Danube enters and leaves tliese plains through gaps which
it has cut in the mountains.
The chief occupation is agriculture, and grain, flax, and
hemp, as well as olives and grapes, are raised. This is the
only European country which has a surplus for export of
all the great food products — grain, meat, dairy products,
and wine. The rearing of silkworms is an important
industry in the warmer parts of the country, and the
cutting of lumber in the east, while in the north n.uch
iron, coal, silver, and rock salt are mined. In the north-
west is a busy manufacturing region, in which cloth, iron
and steel goods, fine Bohemian glass, wxiden ware, and
pianos are made. Much weaving and spinning by hand
are also done in all parts of the country, and much wine
is made, especially in Hungaiy.
With its short seat-oast, separated by mountain ranges
frotn the rest of the
country, Austria-Hun-
gary has comparatively ^
little shipping or sea- ,,_/^
borne commerce, but it^ /
has a large overlan^^:?
trade with Ftirroundii::^.g
countries, an i especially
with Germany, by rE^'i-
road and by the Danu^ i*
and its canal conn ^•sec-
tions with the Rhir _i:\c^
In the eastern half of - '^^
country the population ^k- ^^
language are mostly Slavoc^-*^*""''
though there are also mt^K «=»i*T
people of the yellow tace^^=^^*-
Austria-Htmeary consists of several proviuoes formerly separate, hB" • '"'*
now united as the two states of Austria and Hungary under one m<c» **""■*
arch. Each state has its own constitution and its own parliament, k:..^^ '"^
sends delegates to a general parhament by which affairs of common int^'-:*' Miter-
est are controlled.
The little I'rincipaliti/ of Liechtenstein, between An^triaaud Switzeiiaoa-* .*»"»
ia practically a part of Austria- Hungary.
Vienna is a brilliant and beautiful capital, and ttT-^t^'
fourth city of Europe in size. It is a gi-eat education* *^*'Uft
center. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is an impor<i:»-«or
tant grain market and milling center. Prague is in th=C^t^
maimfacturing region. Trieste is the chief seaport-
THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND. By what countries is Swir 1 •'^•rvi
zerland surrounded T Describe its surface. Name the two lai^;eat lak»:^^-^*
in the Alpine plateau. What four great rivers receive draiiutge froK'*^''*'"'
Switzerland I
Switzerland is much visited by tourist-s in summer, b^<J^
cause of its high snow-covered mountains, its great gla^ t'^"
ciers, which creep down into the green valleys, its glacient'^*-®''
made lakes, and its beautiful waterfalls.
The land is utilized to the snow limit, largely for pa^^***-
tures, and cattle raising is a leading industry. While som-^^^^oe
grapes, grain, and vegetables are raised, much of the foo-<rzwrf
is imported, except dairy products — of these there is a
large surplus for export, chiefly in the form of cheese
condensed milk.
Switzerland is an active manufacturing region, thot DM^ o
most of the articles are handmade. Almost every hon ^^
is a miniature factory. Textiles, embi-oideries, plait^3<i
straw, watches and clocks, and carved wood are amotig
the manufactured products.
128
Sailrood routoa follow tbe RhiaP,
Bbone, and Inn valleys. To what
ooontry does eaoli of these routes
give access T Thp longest railroad
tunnel in the worid has been made
under the St. Qotthard pass into
Italy.
The Bwiss people are of itiizod
descent. Qerxnan lanpiage and eus-
toms prevail in the north, French in
the west, and Italian in the xoutli.
Zurich, the largest city, is a
bustlinginaiiufaeturingtowii,
producing chiefly leather and
silk goods. Geneva is noted
for watch making. Baselmaii- '
iifactuves silk ribbons. Bern '
is the capital and chief rail-
road center.
Supplemental Work. Find out
about William E. Oladstone ; Princo
Bismarck ; Prince Mettcmicb ; Ous-
tavusAdolphus; William the Silent;
Thorwaldsen ; Hans Christian An-
dersen. Be-ad one of the followinjr: "
Guerber; "Tom Brown's School Days
field," by Dickens ; " Tales of a Orand
by B. L. Stevenson
PAETS OP THE EARTH.
•liif f seaports of continental Europe. Ghent
s the chief seat ul' cotton weaving and
cather mauiifacturing in Belgium. Liege,
in llie iron and cua! region, is noted for the
milking nf firearms.
THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. Bound PtbdmI
De»-ril]o its surface, naniin;; the mountains (p. 131).
Trace through it the main European divide. What
i on the northwestern slope t What
wutheeiitemT From the mouth of t)i«
route by river and canal to Bordeaux
; to Nantes on the Loire ; to Havi-e on
. to Strassbui^ on the Rhine. What larg«
part of France! PVom p. 157, compare
size and population \\ ith Ibe iar^st slate in
Union. How does France pompnre with other
ipeau couutriea in density of population T
Green," by G. A. Henty ; " Irish Idylls.." I>> Jane Barlow ; " With Fn^
erick the Great," by Henty; "Our Yoimg Folks in Norway," by A. M
Kellogg; "The Lion of the North," by Ilenty; "Hans Briuker," by M
M. Dodge; "Three Vassar Girb in Switzerland" and "Three Van-in
Girls in the Tyrol," by Champney; "Wonder Stories of Travel," by E.
McCormick, and Longfellow's " PoemK of Places." Begin a scrapbook
of clippings and pictures about Europe, especiidty in its relations to the
United States.
SOUTHWESTERN EUROPE.
THE KINGDOH OF BELGIUU. By wliut countries and son i»
Belgium bordered T (pp. 131, IIS.) Conipnrti it in area and population
with the other countries of Europe ; with Massachusetts.
Belgium is the most densely populated country of
Europe. The greater part is a low, fertile ]>laiii, much
like Holland.. Agriculture is here the chief
occupation. Rye, wheat, flax, beets, and
beans are raised, yet nearly half the food
must be imported.
In the south the land is poor, hilly, and
forest-covered, but contains rich mines of
coal and iron, and here manufacturing is
the leading industry. Belgium is famous
for the manufacture of iron and steel and
hardware. Woven goods — carpets, wool-
ens, linens, and lace — are also made.
Ill the north the people are Germanic
and speak Flemish, a language much like
the Dutch. In the south the people are
like the French iu race, language, and
customs.
Brussels is a fine city, noted for the man-
ufacture of lace, carpets, linens, ribbons,
and embroideries. Antwerp is one of the
■f Ihe EiiRlisb." l.y H. A.
ly Hughi'H: "David f.'opper-
er,"by6c"tt; "Kidnapped,"
Adventures in Thule," by Black ; " Orange
Palace of Jua
France is about twice as large as the British Isles, and.
is a much more important agricultural country. On the _
prairie lauds of northern France more wlieat is raise(^^
than in any other country of Euroiie, except Russia, an(^^j»
almost three fourths as much as in the United Statcss^-s
Great crops of sugar beets, potatoes, and other vegetabitsssj
are also cultivated, and thousan»ls of cnttiF* X :
and sheep are raised. The gr»p<; is a lead-£>
ingproductof central and southern FratioC'f:*^
In the south, olives also arc grown, as well X^
as very many mulberry trees — for rearing c :
silkworms is an important in»lusti-y. IiriT
spite of its great agricultural industries,.Jr5-
Fiance is obliged to import both gi-ahi aiiit* *
meat, though there is a sun^lus of dairy^f :
jiroducts and wine for export
There are several small coal fields iiij:*-
the east and north, and some iron mine.s »%<
in the same region, but mining is not **
nearly so important in France as in either "*
Great Britain or Germany.
Next to the British, the French are the '
chief cloth makers of Europe, and they
are the foremost manufacturers of silkB
and velvets. They also make about one
130
PABTS OP THE EABTH.
Tbe colonial posBessions of Portugal are more extensive, and include
the Azore8(p. 155), Maileira.and Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic, lar^
parts of both the east an.l the west coasts of Africa, and small tracts of
coast in soatheastem Asia.
Where is Madrid f Although on the dry and barren
plateau, it is about as populous as St. Louis, and is the
great railroad center and largest city of the pcuinsula.
Barcelona is the chief manufacturing center and the chief
seaport of Spain. V<dcncia manufai^tnres silk and velvet
and exports fruits, oil, and wine iiroduced in the fertile
region behind it. Seville, at the head of tidewater on the
Guadalquivir, is a busy port, and has manufactories of silk
and of iron. Mahf/a exports grapes, wine, and raisins.
Lisbon, the eajjital of Portugal, is the second city of tlio
peninsula in size, and lias one of the best harliors in tlie
world. Where is Oporto f It is a great -sliipping point fin-
wine. The name "port" wine is a contraction of the
name of this city.
THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. Wtat countries an.l waters border
Italy I What mountains border or traverse ilT Wluit river basin is in
the nortlkl These lowlands are often culled the plains of Tjombardy.
The great islands Sic^ily und Sardinia and several smaller ueijrhboriug
islands form part of Italy. Find Mount Vesuvius, on the peninsula.
It is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe. But Mount
Ktna, iu Sicily, Slromboli, and Vulcano, one of the Lipnri Islands,
are abo active voleanoea. IIow does Italy rank among tbe countries of
Europe in density of population! How does it compare with the
United States in this particular! Because it is sheltered by the Alps
from north and northwest winds, Italy has an ezccptionally warm
ohmato for its latitude. Tbe rainfall is abundant in the fall and winter,
bnt the sammers, especially in (he south, arc quite dry.
A large part of the land
is cultivated by the aid of
iiTigation, and half the
people are engagod in ag-
riculture. Much wheat
and corn are grown, and
in the Po valley some
rice, but grain must tKo
be imported. Viii \ i 1
are numerous and extensive, and thousands of mnlberrj-
trees are cultivated, for Italy is one of the greatest wiue-
and silk-producing countries in the world. On the dopes
of the Apennines are chestnut and olive trees, and figs,
lemons, oranges, and citrous are largely raised.
Wonderful crops of grass and other forage are pi-oduced
iu the Po valley, and so many cattle are raised that there
is a surplus of meat for export. The fisheries affoixi an
imimrtant part of the food supply.
The most important mineral product of Italy is sulphur,
from the sides of the volcano Mount Etna, but excellent
iron ore is mined on the island of Elba, and fine marble is
(juarried on the mainland. Much fine coral is obtained
tVoni the Coast waters.
More than one fourth of the people of Italy are engaged
iu manufacturing, chielly by hand, and mainly iu the reel-
ing of raw silk from the cocoons, though much silk is also
spun and woven on hand looms. Other important indus-
tries are the making of wine, macaroni, glass, and mosaics,
aud the cutting of coral and shells for jewelry.
Italy has some sea-borne foreign commerce, hut most of the tareiga
trade is carried on by railroad through the Mont Oenis and St. Gotthard
tunnels. The chief exports arc raw silk, wine, oUve oil, and aulphnr.
Italy has colonial possessions in East Africa, but is not a great colon.
iziug country. Many Italians emigrate; some come to the United States, -
but most of them go to the South American rcpubUcs of Argentina and ^^'«
Brazil (pp. lOS, KW). "^-c^
San Mai-tHo is a small independent republic in eastern Italy.
Where is Romef It is tho capital, and, because o ■^c^Df
its ancient greatness, the most famous of the Italia. — _ g
cities, though it ranks second i . n
population. Among its nnt r -=» ,j
buildings are the Pope's palac- -= «,
called the Vatican, with its mag
nificent collection of painting
and statuary ; St. Peter's, tt
largest church in the world; an^^:><]
many famous ruins.
^ Naples, the largest city c^fot
Italy, is somewhat larger tho^Bu-i]
Boston. It is the commereis. ^ai
Hacaioai and frait stand, Napli
center of the kingdom, aud or ^lo
of the most crowued cities of E» — u-
ropo. Milan and Turin are bea?^ u-
tiful citie.s, and the commerci _»a/
Part r and manufacturing centers of
northern Italy. Where is i^~ — 'a-
hrmof Genoa ^ Vtnket These are all important s^^Ba-
ports. Genoa is fannjus as the birthplace of Colurab^^js.
Venice is built on a number of small islands, and its mc:»iii
thoroughfares are canals insteatl of streets. Florence a
noted for its art treasures ami its romantic history.
Supplemental Work. Find out about Napoleon Bonaparte; Fe»^^-
naoi! aud Isabella; OaribalJi. Find who arc tho present rulers lO *™
uouQtrit's of Europe. Read " A Talc of Two Citiea," by Dick«*f '
"Young Franc-tneurs," by Ilenty; "A Child's History of Spain," "^
J. Bonner; "A Vagabond in Spain," by C. B. Luffmann; "Held ^^^
for Entrland," by Henty ; "The Improvisatore," by Andersen; " ''v-.
Lion of St. Mark's," by Henty ; " Stories of Other Lands," by JdwnU*
N
182
PABTS OF THE BABTH.
EASTERN EUROPE.
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. Bj what conntrr and waters is
Greece boi'deredf (p. IIS.) What can you say of its coast lineT The
kingdom includes some islands on the west coast, and the Grecian or
^Ige&n Archipelago to the east. Name and locate the capital.
Like Switzerlaud, Greece is divided by mountains into
many small valleys. Its few rivers are rapid niountaiti
streams, of little use for inland trade, bnt its deeply in-
dented coast affords good harbors. The land is owned
lai'gely by the peiisants themselves, but there is little skill
employed in its cultivation. The products are siiiiihir to
those of Italy. Dried grapes, of a peculiar kiTid kTiowu as
currants, foi-m the principal iirticle of export. The Greeks
have always been famous sailors. Much ot the commerce
of the Black and Mediterranean seas is conducted by them,
and shipbuilding is quite an important industry. Most of
the fine sponges of commerce are gathered from the easteni
part of the Mediten-anean Sea, and cured by Greeks.
Groeoe was the home of art and literature, of commerce and good
government, long before the rise of Rome. But the coimtry was de-
spoiled by the Romans and then by the Teutons, and from the middle of
tlie fifteenth century until after the be^^innintf of the nineteenth, it van
niled by the Turks. Under the dominion of tht'se foreign peoples
Greece has been sadly reduced in both wealth and culture.
Athens is a growing commercial city and contains relics
of former splendor, among them the ruins of the Parthe-
non, a famous ancient temple.
THE EMPIRE OF TURKEY. By what coantries and waters b
EiUK^ienn Turkey bordered 1 (p. 118.) This is but part of the Turkish
Empire, which extends over southwest Asia and part of northern Africa,
and claims Eyj'pt, Bulgaria, Crete, aud other states as tributary.
Name the capital. The entrance to what sea b controlled by Turkey 1
Through what straits and what aeu is this entrance I
Turkey receives its name from the Tui'ks, a people of
the yellow race, who, about five hundred years ago, ex-
tended their Asiatic empire over a large part of southeast-
ern Europe. Their European territory has been graduaily
reduced until it is not now so lai^ as the state of
MiBsouri.
It contains nearly twice as many people as Missouri, however, and the
population is very mixed, consisting of Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Gypsies,
Salaa In Atluns.
and many Asiatics. The emperor, called the ttillan, b an absolute
monarch. The officers of the government are often dishonest and cruel
in collecting the heavy taxes.
In Turkey more land i.s devoted to pasture than to farm-
ing, and the agricultural methods and implements are veiy
rude. Grain, tobacco, cotton, grapes, and tropical fruits
are grown. Manufactures are few. Carpets, eloth, and
jewelry are made by hand. The trade is conducted mainly
by Greeks, .Tews, and foreigners. Raw materials, wine, and
food are exported in esehange for manufactured goods.
There are few railroads in the country, and roads are bad,
so that doniesti*! trade does not flourish.
"Whei-B is Constantinople f Tlie location of this city is
so commanding that it is considered a key to the military
control of eastern Europe. It is almost twice as large s
Boston, and is noted for its beautiful mosques, or Mohaio^ ^^
inedan ciiurches, but most of the streets are unpaved an ■
filthy. Saloniki is an important port, with a large Jewis '-
population.
THE MINOR BALKAN STATES. Name the four stataa betwee
Turkey and Austria (p. 118). All these states formerly belonged t
Turkey, but became independent in 1878. Which of them lie i
Danube basin T Which border on the Black Sea 1 Which borders on thi
Adriatic Seat Which has no seacoastt By what mountains is eac ^"^
bordered or crossed 1
In the Kingdom ofRoumania and the PrincipalUy ofBvI^ ^
garia agriculture is the leading occupation, and both eoun M^^^
tries export wheat, corn, and wine, and raise cattle anc^ -^
sheep. The imports are manufactured goods, chiefly froD*^^^^
Austria. Roumania is so named because it was settled b^ «=»
the ancient Romans. Bulgaria was settled by people OKz r x rz .
the Turkish typo of the yellow race. Both countria^i^E^
have been so overrun by Slavs, however, that there Is littM^ l e
trace of the early settlers. What is the capital of Kol^^lz-
mauia} of Bulgaria? Bulgaria and Crete, though nonr — li-
nally tributary to Turkey, are practically independent.
The Kingdom o/Servia and the Principality o/Monteneff ro
are less advanced in industry than Bulgaria and Rouman~ia-
Both are raountuiuous, forest-covered countries. Ho ^
fatten iu the forests, and grain and wine are produc^^'
What is the capital of Servia ; of Montenegro f
*> * ^"■^f^""'*
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^^^«r^^N::^^*'^Crj^^^^*^-^ r,4'' ^
\\x3r''"^C'^ C\^ Jl-"''^^ *'''?^ ^^ \ *f*^^~~---*
^^r^ ^Saw^*^%. ' "^^^ ^ aY'^'^y 9^-^-
**" \^^-£'*^'f'^'^*'^^^V*''^^^^\^ * ^-^^^^M^* "^ "^
W^^^'^^^V^XF^
VVJSS'^r tPlr^ «_Pa!^&^?X, ^^. '■
f\^i^#r^ >fma.- -^ <^^
\ ^f?ii» (^J^ ^^-'^ "fl ^*^^«^'*^ ^\ i^'x^^^B''
C^^fM\--^i^^^^^ ^^^^ yry V il \^t^\.jf ^ 9 '"
PSwfc_Sr::/'*'r ^^^''^-^-y^J^H^ fU^* ^'^H **■
i^^^^ *•' 5 \j^^^V '-'"^ jMV''^
Ti a " "V ."" ^^r^S^K^&t^ 9 ' 'fM^S''^
n* i^ ^ /''J^/^S*^^^^ '^^^ ^
La • "j!^^^^^^^^w^^° > '
^^^5iS
2\™\ s^^''\^^^%.i^*^( ji/J*"^^ •*'*^j?'^^\ ^
^Mj ^^^^4?SA" '
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^^^r^^'^^^ei '
^^^H#}1 " ii=4%3^ ^
*"**•" iRr^^i^^^^j^ilSsi---''^^ f * J A 3 ^
____j;i*!l3*W-jy^"rA«' [°?* ^ J^feh^ Tc'''"'''t° 5 «^o>'-'=^
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6,^*^^% '■' ^ 1^" ^ J °
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^^^^^^^fe^"^
^^Jj/ 1 (^ »*"'* '**
' ^ i^^^'S^iy' ^-'•"■'
«'~^'^^^^\,».*»'e 7 ^'''' -1,
"'"'^1^
S^SS^^^J
100 II
ASIA.
Review of Physical Features and Life. <pp. 113-117.)
What [ibyiiical features arc often considered boundaries separating
Kurasiu into tlie two grand divisioas of Europe and AsiaT How
do these diviitioDs oompare in sizet Nome the oceans and ocean
arms whioh border the northern, eaetem, and southern coasts of
Asia. Locate five peninsuhu of Asia, and name the waters they
separate. What three island groups are off the east coast f Name
three great rivers of the Aretio slope ; four of Uio Pacific slope ;
four of the Indian Ooean slope. Is the Ulterior region between the
basLns of these rivers entirely highland 1 Explain the relation be-
tween the rainfall and the drainage of this interior re^on. Describe
briefly the great highland of Asia, its extent, altitude, mouulain
ranges, climate, and surface peculiarities. Describe briefiy the
great nortbora lowland ; the Pacific slope ; the Indian Ooean slope.
Locate and describe briefiy the charaeteristio forms of vege-
tutiou in the northern lowland of Asia ; the characteristio forms
of animal lite. In the same manner describe the distribution of
hfo forms in the liighland r^on^ on the southern and southeast-
ern slopi's of Asia. Locate the two races of men which inhabit
Asia. Locate four peoples of the white race ; three peoples of the
yellow race. How docs Asia compare with Europe in population ;
witli North America T Locate the two great regions of very dense
population in Asia. More tlian three fourths of all the people in
Asia live in these two regions, and about half the remainder live
ou the islands to the cost and southeast. In what stage of culture
are most of the people in Asiaf
PEOPLE.
Civilization. More tlum half of all the people in
tlie world have their homes in Asia. Nearly all of
these people liave gradually become somewhat civil-
ized, though their civilization is as rude and imper-
fect as that of Europe was a thousand years ago.
But it is different in many ways from the earlier
civilization of Europe, for the peoples of Asia and of
Europe mixed with one another very little in olden
times. Tlierefore the languages, habits, dress, and
manners of the peoples of Asia seem very strange to
US, wlio have received our civilization from Europe.
Throughout most of Asia the women are considered as little
more than servants or slaves. They are seldom educated and
are often bought and sold. Boys and men are also enslaved in
many of the countries, and are often very cruelly treated. None
of the native peoples of the mainland of Asia have yet learned to
recognize the value of the steam engine, or of improved machinery
and implements of any kind, and nearly everything is done by
human labor or by that of domestic animsls. There is little profit
in such slow labor, and hence the great mass of the people are
wretcbedly poor. In the sparsely settled regions the people use
animal food chiefiy. Whyl In the moister regions of the south-
east food is mainly vegetable and is much more plentiful, and that
is why these regions are more deusely peopled. But even there,
when the crops fail in any large district, a terrible famine occurs
and thousands of people starve, because there are few or no rail-
roads, steamboats, or good roads by which food may be qnickly
brought from other districts. The few railroads and the little
improved machinery are in the hands of the comparatively few
Europeans who have settled in Asia.
Commerce. Because of the lack of improved im-
plements and means of transportation, the products
and eommerfie of Asia are slight in comparison with
its large population. Although there are more than
twice as many people iu Asia as in Europe, the foreign
136
commerce is but one fourth as
great as that of Eiii-ojn-, and is
less 1li;iii twii'P as ijvfal as thnt of
the lTnilp.l .Stntivs.
Fully nioe tenlis of the foreipti com-
mcrco of Aaia ia carried on by the coun-
triea and Lslanda in the southeaal whieli
Iiavo a heavy or moilerately heavj-
rainfall.
Governments. None of the
native peoples on ttie mainland
of Asia have become civilized
PARTS OP THE EARTH.
CODHTRIES.
A houae in Russian TuTkestan.
euou^h to know liow to orgaiiizo povernments for the
benefit of tlie niasti <if the people. Most of the countries,
therefore, are absolute luouarcliies, much as the countries
of Eurojio wore a tliousaud years ago. The nder holds
his position by force, aii<i has supreme power over the
lives and property of his subjects, whom he often treats
cruelly and unjustly.
Wlint f^at country iit southern Asia bt-lonirs to (ireat Britain t
Anani, on tlio aoutheast i-cast, belongs to tlio Ueiiublic of France. Tli<.>so
nations send Europeans to Rovem these countries as colonial [rossessions.
All tlio other conntriea of tho Asiatic mainland are governed by altsolutc
monnniLt. WLnt island empire is east of Asittl The Japanese are the
most civilized native peopl(; of Asia. They have recently ado|>ted many ,
of the customs of European (■ivili7jhtioD ; among others, a limited mon- |
archy ns their form of poveriiment. The Uniteil States, tho Netherlands, i
and Great Britain control the islands between the Empire of Japan and i
Australia.
Religion. Southwest of tho Kirghiz Steppe and tho
Indus liiver, Mohan nnedan ism is the prevailing religious
faith in ^L^ia, although there are many Chnstians and
Jews in Asia Minor. In India the mass nf the people
believe iu Brahmanisni, but there aro also very nnniy
Mohammedans, and Mohaiumedauism is tlic prevailing
religion in the East Indie.s. In Indo-Cliina, f.'hina,
Korea, and Ja])an most of the people are Ihiddhists,
while in Siberia tho Greek form of the Christian religiou
prevails.
ASIATIC RUSSU. Byr^
what name b the {^renter pni — x x=3
of Asiatic Russia eullitl t Dc- ^j»^
scribe the buuniLiriesiifAsiatii* i ^
Rusiua, Find the distanee icxi
miles from the Ural M<iuiitain£ c:K-
t" the Sea of Okhotsk. De-*^^
scribe the surface of SilKTJa. .*^-'
Name its great rivers. Why-^T^^
are there no seaports on the^» *-
noi-them coaKt 1 What kind fc» '
of climate hiis tjiberia I Why I ^
The simiiuers of Si- —
boria, though short, are —
so warm that grain ripens *
almost as far north as
the Arctic Cin'le; but
in winter the cold is in-
tense even in the south-
In southern Siberia are broad tracts ot fertile
Id tbe city of BokluiB.
eru parts.
laud and grassy jtlaius, which furtiish pasturage for thou-
sands of cattle and horses. Gtdd is found along the edge
of the highland, and there are deposits of coal, iron, and
other minerals.
Branches of the Siberian rivers flow so near to one an-
other that they form, with but short inferrnptions, a natu-
ral water way far through the iuterior. It is mainly by this
route that the more distaut provinces are reached, though
a post road traverses this region from Tinmen, through
Irkutsk, to tlie Amur River. Find these towns. They are
the principal trade centers of Siberia.
The Kussiiin (government is buildinff a railroad across the country
from fixft !•> west. Its e«stc-rn terminus is Vlailivostok. What ia the
distance fmm Vladivostok to St. Pet^'rsburpf What advanta^rcs will
tlie eoiupklion of this road (five to Russia f
Siberia is very sparsely settled. It is larger than the whole United
States, but contains fewer people than the state of Pennsylvania, lilust
of the inhabitants are free itiimigratita from European Ru.'jsia. Many,
however, are exiles who. having Ijcen convicted of crimes or suspected
of uiifricntily sentiments toward the government, are obliged to live
there under Russian officers api>ointed to wateli them. There are also
r" " " " 1
-^-^^^^^^^K
fi -
:flHH
Ifc^ ^
Oil woiks «t Bkku.
138
near the seacoasts and mountains some
rain falls. Along the southern shores
the date palm flourishes, and there are
fine forests of cedars, elms, and oaks.
All kinds of fruit grow in the lowlands.
Wheat, barley, rice, cotton, and opium
are cultivated. The raising of cattle,
sheep, camels, and horses is the chief
business of many of the people.
Besides the Persiaiis, who compose the greater
part of the popnlation, there are many Arabs, Ar-
meoiana, and Tarke in different parts of the coun-
try. The ruler of Persia is called the »kah.
Handmade carpets and eamel's-hair
cloth are almost the only manufactures.
Trade is ean-ied on by caravans. There
are praotieally no railroads or can-iage
roads. The principal exportsare opium, peraum
pearls, carpets, and dates.
What, is the capital of Persia! Teheran and Tabriz
are the chief centers of the caravan trade. Ispahan,
the former capital, has great bazars and magnificent
palaces. Bushire and Bar/rush are the most important
ports.
AFGHANISTAN. What ooantriea surround Afghanistan T Describe
its surface and its drainage.
Although the climate of Afghanistan is dry, the soil is
fertile and in many parts of the country yields two har-
vests each year. Wheat and barley are harvested in sum-
mer, and rice, millet, and corn in autumn. Fruits are
abundant, and di-ugs are produced.
The population of Afghanistan is made up of many
tribes, mostly of Aryan descent, all loosely united under
one ruler called the ameer.
Next to agriculture and stock raising the chief indus-
tries are the making of silk goods, felts, and carpets.
Other exports are horses, spices, and fruits.
Name the capital. Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul are for-
tified towns and centers of considerable caravan trade.
BAinCBISTAN. By
what countries and sea is
Baluchistan borderedt De-
Boribe its surface and cli-
Baluchistan is about
half as large as the state
ofTexas. Itisgovemed
by a native ruler, or
Man, who is under the
control of the British
government in India.
The people are very sim-
ilar to those of Afghan-
istan. Much of the
country is stony and
barren, but there are
good pastures, and the
nomad tribes are en-
PABTS OF THE BABTH.
lished trading
gained control
gaged in raising camels and horses, sheep
and goats. Name the capital
INDIA. Bound India. Describe the surface
and drainage of Hindustan j of the Dekkan. De-
scribe the climate. What two rivera are fed by the
snows on the northern slopes of the Himalayas t
What branch of the Indus pierces these moun-
tains t Which slope of the Himalayas does the
Ganges drain T
India is about half as large as the
United States, but its population is more
tlian four times as great. There are peo-
ple of various types in all parts of the
country, yet they are but little mixed.
By far the largest part of the popida-
tion consists of Hindus, a dark-skinned
branch of the Aryan people.
Within the past three centuries the
English, French, and Portuguese estab-
stations on the coasts. The British finally
over nearly all the native states, and now
Weavmg tapestry, Persia.
govern almost the entire country, although the number of
British people in India is quite insignificant in comparison
with the dense native population. The Queen of Great
Britain is called the Empress of India. She appoints a
British governor general, or viceroy, who lives in India and
governs the country under the direction of the executive
branch of the British government in London.
The Hindus had attained a somewhat high degree of civilization long
before the Europeans entered their country. Some of the most beautiful
temples in the world are tlie work of the Hindus centuries ago. They
had a written language, an ancient literature, and a highly oi^nized
system of society. The peculiarity of the Hindu social system is its
division into castes, or fixed classes. A Hindu must live, marry, and die
in the same class of society and follow the same occupation as his
father. This system very naturally discourages all kinds of progress,
and the Hindus Lave made no improvement among themselves for a
long time. The houses of the common people are small and miserable
hovels, without doors and with little or no furniture. The farming im-
plements and methods are of the rudest desoription, and the floor or meal
is generally ground by hand aa shown in the picture on the opposite page.
The popnlstion of Indifl is most dense in the Ganges valley and in
those parts of sontheast«ni Dekkan where irrigation is snccessful. It is
least dense in the dry and barren parts of the Indus valley.
Most of the people live by agriculture, raising millet and
rice for their own use, and various other products for ex-
port. Eice, jute, aud
bamboo grow in the
<ielta of the Gangfs.
T'aTther up the river
the mulberry and the
opium poppy are cul-
tivated. CottoH, wheat
aud pepper are grown
ill the Dekkau, where
there are also large
plantations of coffee.
Tea, and the cinchona
Grinding millet, India.
i- 139
The British have caused good roads to be constructed
in nearly all parts of the country, and have built more
than 20,000 miles of railroad. These are the chief
means of transportation, for the detritus in the rivers
of northern India, and cascades in the rivers of the
Dekkan, interfere with the use of these streams
as trade routes,
The foreign commerce of India is nearly as great
as that of the United States, and almost equals that
of all the rest of Asia. About half of it is with Great
Britain, aud a large part of the remainder with China.
V
tree from South Anieri<^a, are cuUivated
ou the Himalaya foothills. In the valley
of the Brahmaputra the growing of seeds
for making oil similar to linseed oil is
one of the most important industries-
Many miles of irrigati
in the Ganges valley, and
in llie Dekkan to supply '
Yet the rainfall is so in'egult
terrible famines frequently ■
failure of crops.
Eliiph^als ami caiuels, a:
zebus, are used as beasts of burdi
Manufacturing industries are being rapidly developed
bv the Europeans, and cotton, woolen, aud jute goods,
and paper are made. Tlieve are some iron mines in India,
and many coal mines, but they are not close together, and
there are consequently but few manufactures of iron.
Most of the manufactured goods are still made by hand;
fine cottons aud silks, gold embroideries, soft cashmere
shawls, carved ivory, jewelry, beautiful rugs, and embroid-
■ered leather goods iu gi-eat variety are produced iu this
"Way by the native workmen.
stairway for bathers, Benares.
exports are cot-
ton, jute, rice,
, opium,
tea, hides, indigo,
and wheat. Cot-
ton cloth, ma-
chinery, iron-
ware, and re-
fined sugar are
chief im-
ports.
Calcutta is the
capital anil chief
seaport. Bombay
isthelargestcity
on the western
coast, and is important as the chief port for the shipment
of Indian cotton. Each of these cities is about the size of
Brooklyn. Madras and Haidardbad, each about the size
of Boston, are great centers of trade. Lucknow, Benares,
aud Delhi are large and important native cities.
N^al and Bhutan are native monarchies in northern India. Bhutan
is partly in British control. Nepal ia tributary to China.
Ceylon is a British colony by itself. Its chief products
are tea and eocoanuta. Name the chief city.
140
PABTS OP THB ElABTH.
THE COUNTRIES OF UHMM^HINA. What diviaioiis of Bntish
India lie east of ibe Bay of Ben^ 1 What narrov peninsnla extende
Btill farther sonUi T What British possession O43oapie8 the sonthem part
of the Malay peainsnlaf What country comprises the eastern part of
Indo-China f What is the oonntry in the centntl part called T
Name the chief rivers and gulfa of Indo-Chiua. In what direction do
the mountain ranges extend t
Most of the people of Indo-China are of the Mongolian
type, but there are many Malays in the south. In the
mountainous regions there
are but few inhabitants, but
in the valleys and river deltas
the population is very dense.
The chief products of Indo-
China are rice, sugar, spices,
lumber, and tin. There are
mines of coal, iron, copper,
silver, and gold, but the re-
sources of none of the couii-
tries have yet been hiWy de-
The foreign com-
HooMS on the Hekong;.
meree of Indo-China is greater than that of any other
part of Asia except India. It is conducted almo.st
entirely by Europeans, although many of the mer-
chants are Chinese.
Upper and Lower Burma are part of the British government of India,
but the Straits Settlements form a separate British colony. Anam, with
Tonkin, Cambodia, and Cochin China, is under the control of the French,
though Anam and Cambodia havo native rulers. Siam is a native kinj;-
dom, about four times as large as the state of New York.
Name and locate the capital of Siam. Bangkok is built
partly on piles in tlio river and is about the size of Detroit.
Mandalaif and Rmtgoon are the principal cities and trade
centers of Buniia, Saigon is the seat of government i*n-
French Indo-China. Singapore, in the Straits Settlements,
expoi-ts tin and spices, and i.s important as a coaling sta-
tion for steamers and as a center of trade for tho sur-
i-ounding region.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE. In what part of Asia is the Chinese
Emptrol What waters border it? What mounlaina are on its soulh-
western border; on its northwestern border I What plateau forms the
west«m part; the northern juirtf Compare it with tiie United States
aad with Europe in arua and population. What are its two great rivers t
Into what does each flow f Bendefl China proper, iriiat fonr other eoua- k=ks-
triea are included in the Chinese Empire T
China proper, or the Middle Kingdom, as the ChineB^ ga e
call it, contains about nine tenths of the population of th^-ane
empire. Why is it better fitted for habitation than othec^sr
parts of the empire ! Tlio Yangtze is navigable for hun- .^cx-
dreds of miles by the largest ocean steamers. This river— :»,
with its tributaries, and the Si River to the south afforcr^d
the only easy means of com — -
mnnicatiou in the interior. .
ThoHoangisloadedwith sed
iraent and is so obstructed byw^rf
sand bars that it is not nav
igable. It often overflows ita^^
banks, causing widespread-^El
saster to villages and farms, ,»- *■,
and several times it has ^^»b
i-lianged its course entirely. — "'■
Wliere b the Grand Canal, and *^,
what two rivers does it connect t It * "
n as built niorethan a thousand years ^^"^
ago aad is still much used as a high- ^ **
\wiy of trade and communication. - * ^
'iiTL' are several other canals iu *\»-
different partsof the eountrj', *" ^
but owing to the prejudices ,
of the Chinese there are
few railroads. The public
i-oads are in a poor condition; *
and, away from rivers and ca-
nals, goods are carried for the
most part on the backs of por-
ters.
The people of China belong
to the Mongolian type of the
yellow race, and are peculiar
in language, religion, cus-
toms, and dress. Buddhism
is a prevailing religion, bat
there are many followers of
Confucius, a Chinese philoso-
pher who lived many centu-
ries ago. The strangest fea- .
ture of their religion is the ^^
worship of their ancestors.
This makes tliem unwilling to ~
leave the ways which these ancestors foUowei; hence they are snspi- _^ _^
eious of foreigners and dislike foreign customs. Their dress and msL- ^ ■*"
nera, and even the construction of their houses, are regulated by laws ^^ "•'
made hundreds of years ago. It was not until near the middle of the^^ "^
nineteenth century that thi'v cunsentcd to have any intercourse ^itfc;^-^^
other natiomi. Yet they were anioug the first people in the world t- — __^
become civilized. Silk apinuing and weaving were brought to gre^^^^
perfection by them many centuries before such art^ were known ^ -^
Euriipe. Tho Chinese were among the first people to make paper; tlB.*^^;^
invi'nteil printing and dLicuvired girapowder long before such thicM- »^^
wore known to Europeans. Tea was introduced into Europe frc=»»a>
Tho government is an absolute monarchy, in which the emperor fc-^p-
points his own successur. Tho offlcers of the government are selected "^^^7
the emperor from those scholars best informed in Chinese leamii^^S'
Every candidate for ollice (imst pass sevei-e examinations.
Education is gt-ntral among the men, but neglected among the wome ^'
The language has no alplialjet ; eaih written character stands for a sj^^^^
lable or word, and a Chinese boy must learn to Jcnow several thousanc^^*
of these characters by sight.
A Burmese family.
142
PABTS OF THE EARTH.
yield lumber, lacquer gum, and camphor. The bamboo is
abuudaut, and is used for many purposes.
There are few sheep or cattle; hence little wool or
leather is obtained, and dairy products are rare. But
many hogs and fowls are raised, and the Japanese fisheries
are valuable.
The chief mineral products are silver, copper, coal, iron,
and sulphur.
Several branches of manufaoture, as we understand the term, have
lately been started in Japan, and are i1oiirishin|r, but for many i;pntiirii.'s
the Japanese have been producing wonderfully skillful and artistic handi-
work. Japanese silk, cloth, and embroidery, jute floor mats, paper, and
bamboo work, matches, inlaid metal work, lacquered ware, and pottery
are now found in all European and American cities.
Eaih'oads are being buUt, and steam vesspls nre hoing
used for foastiiiLr ti-iuli-, so that coinun'n-c is very active.
Threshiag r
The foreign commerce is as great
as that of all northern and western
Asia. The chief exports are raw
and manufactured silk, but tea,
liee, coal, and copper are also im-
portant exports.
The Japanese are by far the most civ-
ilized of llie Asiatic pt?oples. They are
of misod Mongol and Malay blood, rather
small of stature, but with lively, pleasing
features. For many centuries they lived secluded from other nations,
cultivating their peculiar arts, and having a literature of their own.
About fifty years ago, realizing that they were less strong than the na-
tions of Europe, tbey invited American and European specialists and
teachers into their country, sent their brightest youths to study in our
cities, and establiahed schoob, railroads, postal' and telegraph systems,
factories, and an army and navy, aft«r European or American models.
Their emperor rules by the aid of a parliament consbting of two houses,
the membeiBtit one being nobles and the members of the other being
representatives elected by the people.
Education is almost universal, and newspapers are read by the people
of the cities ; but most of the people are still Buddhists or worship their
ancestors, dress in loose robes, with girdles and straw sandals, and follow
the ancient customs of the country. Their manners are courteous, their
wits quick and keen, and their ambition great.
Tokyo, the capital, is a city of rapid growth and contains
over a million people. The foreign quarter is much like
a European city. Tohohama, its seaport, is the chief cen-
ter of foreign commerce. Osaka and Kyoto are the
of important mauuractures.
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. In what dii«ction from Japan ek m
the Hiilippine Islands 1 What waters surTousd themf Through h- .m^uow
many degrees of lat^do do they extend T Describe their climnM— wntc.
Name the chief island, ^hat is the capital T
The Philippine I^nds were the most important of t-=ah8
Spauisli colonial possessions, but the control of tbe^i^ese
islands passed to tlie Uuitetl States after the war of 18i_"^S98.
There are about two thousand islands in the group, 17 ^he
largest being about the size of Kentucky. The bulk o!
the i)Opuliition are Malays, but there are many Chine&=^se,
and a few Spaniards. Manila is the capital Rice, sugs^^^i
Manila hemp, and tobacco are the chief products. .
THE EAST INDIES, OR THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. NaiE«=-"
the largest islands of tliis group. Name the seas and straits betwe^;^'**
the islands. Describe tliu climate.
The surface of those islands is rugged and mountain*^*-'
ous. Among the islands are many active volcanoes. Th» ■*-'
soil is generally fertile. In the larger islands are deus^^
and extensive forests.
The greater part of this group of islands belongs to the^^'
Netherlands and is known as the Dutch Kast Indies. Most ^'
of the inhabitants aro Malays, but there are many Chinese ^
and a few Arabs. The Europeans, who are the mliug 1
frivni but a sni;dl part of the popidation.
Java is the most important of the
Dutch possessions. It is about as
large as the state of New York, but
contains four times as many inhab-
itants. It produces much cane su- ^
gar, and, after Brazil, more coffee ^
than any other countiy in the world, *;J
Batavia is the capital and com- ^^
mercial center of the Dutch Ea^j, "
Indies.
Sumatra produces coffee, hla.ci- i
pepper, rice, and India mbber, aiil |
has mines of gold, coal, tin, aft^ 1
Banca and Billiton suj-^v^^
most of the world's output of t»— \i-
Borneo is a little larger ^•hw
Texas. Some parts of its wooded interior have not S'^*
been explored. Most of the iidiabitants are Malays. "^^^
northern part belongs to Great Britain, the rest to ^^^
Netherlands. The chief products are timber, sago, ^c:'i'-'^
coffee, pepper, gutta-percha, tapioca, and tobacco.
Supplemental Work. Collect pictures and objects illuslratiiigr — ""^
customs and occupations of Asiatic peoples. Read " Carpenter'a Geogj^^P'''
ical Reader, Asia;" " Boy Travellers in the Par East," by T. W. Km^™'
" Story of Japan," by E. Van Bergen ; " When I was a Boy in Ch£— -""i'
by Yan Phou Lee ; " Child Life in Chinese Homes," by Mrs. Brj-^^<™ '
" Our Boys in China " and " Our Boys in India," by H. W. French ; "^^ ^^
Deccan Days," edited by Frere ; " With Clive in India " and " On **
Irrawaddy," by Henty j " Java," by S. J. Higgiuson ; " The Lost C^-'J'"
by David Kar ; " Life with Trans-Siberian Savages," by B. D. Hoii'^s^'^'
"Tent Life in Siberia," by Keiinan; "For Name and Fame,"by Hee:^^*
"Behind an Eastern VeU," by C. J. Wills; "For the Temple,*^ ^^
Henty ; selections from Longfellow's " Poems of Plaoes."
Z'JT^""
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ASIA.
Review irf niTsical Features and Life. (pp. 113-U7.)
What pliysioal features are uften considered boundaries separating
Eunifiia into the two grand divisions of Europe and Aaial How
do these divimons compare in size f Name the oceans and ocean
arms which border the northern, east«m, and Boutbem coasts of
Afda. Locate five peninsuhu of Aua, and name the waters they
separate. What three island groups are oS the east coast T Name
three great rivers of the Arctic slope ; four of the Pacific slope ;
four of the Indian Ocean slope. Is the interior region between the
basins of these rivers entirely higlilaiid T Explain the relation be-
tween the rainfall and the drainage of this interior region. Describe
briefly the great highland of Asia, its extent, altitude, mountain
ranges, climate, and surface pecoliaritiea. Describe briefly the
Gjent northern lowland ; the Pacific slope ; the Indian Ocean slope.
Loc.ite and describe briefly the oharactcriBtic forms of vege-
tation in the northern lowland of Asia; the characteristic forms
of animal life. In the same manner describe the distribution of
life forms in the highland region^ on the southern and sontheast-
em slopes of Asia. Locate the two races of men which inhabit
Asia. Locate four peoples of the white race ; three peoples of the
yelli>w race. How does Asia compare with Europe in population;
with North America T Locate the two great regions of very dense
popidation in Asia. More tlian three fourths of aU the people in
Asia live in these two regions, and about half the remainder live
on the islands to the east and southeast In what stage of cnltore
are most of the people in Asia 1
PEOPLE.
Civilization. More than half of all the people in
the wofld liave their homes iu Asia. Nearly all of
these people liave graduiiUy become somewhat civil-
ized, though tlieir civilization is as rude and imper-
fect as that of Europe was a thousand years ago.
But it is different in many ways from the earlier
civilization of Europe, for the peoples of Asia and of
Europe mixed with one another very little in olden
times. Therefore the languages, habits, dress, and
manners of the peoples of Asia seem very strange to
as, who have received our civilization from Europe.
Throughout most of Asia tlie women are considered as little
more than servants or slaves. They are seldom educated and
are often bought and sold. Boys and men are also enslaved in
many of the countries, and are often very cruelly treated. None
of the native peoples of the mainland of Asia have yet learned to
recognize the value of the steam engine, or of improved machinery
and implements of any kind, and nearly everything is done by
human labor or by that of domestic animals. There is little profit
in such slow labor, and hence the great mass of the people are
wretchedly poor. In the sparsely settled regions the people use
animal food chiefly. Whyl In the moister re^^ons of the soutii-
east food b mainly vegetable and is much more plentiful, and that
is why thcs6 regions are more densely peopled. But even there,
when the crops fail in any large district, a terrible famine occurs
and thousands of people starve, because there are few or no rail-
roads, steamboats, or good roads by which food may be quickly
brought from other districts. The few railroads and the little
improved machinery are in the hands of the comparatively few
Europeans who have settled in Asia.
Commerce. Because of the lack of improved im-
plements and means of transportation, the products
and comiuerce of Asia are slight in comparison with
its large population. Although there are more than
twice as many people iu Asia as in Europe, the foreign
136
commerce is but ooe fourth as
great as that of Europe, and is
less tlitm twii'p «=: <rn*at as that of
thP Uiiit.-ii Stilt. -s.
Fully niiio tenths of the foreign com-
merce of Asia is carried on by the coun-
tries anil idlaudH in the southeast which
have a heavy or moderately heavy
rainfall.
Goveniments. None of the
native peoples on the mainland
of Asia have become- civilized
PARTS OF THE EARTH.
COUNTRIES.
Id Ibe city oi Bokhara
in BnssijJi Tuikestan.
enough to know how to organize governments for the
beuefit of the mass of the people. Most of the countries,
therefort', are absoUite monarchies, much as tlio countries
of Europe were a thousand years ago. Tlie ruler holds
his positinn by f<)ree, and has supreme power over the
lives and proi)erty of liis subjects, whom be often treats
cruelly and unjustly.
Wliat gi^at countrj- in southern Aaa bclonps to Oreat BntainT
Adad), on the southeast coast, helongs to the Republic of France. Those
nations send Europeans to jifovem these countries as cxtlonial possessions.
All tho other countries of tlio Asiatic mainland arc govemcd by absolute
monarch^. What island empire is cast of Asial The Japanese are tlie
most civilized native people of Asia. They have recently adoi)ted many
of the customs of European cinlination ; among others, a limited mon-
archy as their form of government. The United States, tho Netherlands,
and Great Britain control the islaiidii between the Empire of Japan and
Australia.
Religion. Southwest of tlio Kirghiz Steppe and the
Indus lii^er, Mohammedanism is the prevailing religious
faith in Asia, although tliere are many Cliristians and
Jews in Asia Minor. In India the mass of tlie people
believo in Brahmanism, but there are also very many
Mohannnedans, and Moliammedauism is the prevailing
religion in tho East Indies. In Indo-Ohina, China,
Korea, and Japan most of the people are Buddhists,
whilo in Siberia the Greek form of tho Christiuu religion
prevails.
ASUTIC RUSSIA. By
what name is tho greater part
of Asiatic Russia called f De-
scribe the boundaries of Asiatic
Russia. Find tho distance in
miles from the Ural Mouut.-iitii>
to the Sea of Okhotsk. De-
scribe the surface of Silx-ria.
Kame its great rivers. Why
are there no seaports on the
northern coast t What kind
of climate has tSilieria I Why T
The summers of Si-
beria, though sliort, are
so warm thatgrain rii>eu8
almost as far north as
the Arctic Circle; but
in winter the cold is iu-
teuse even in the south-
ern parts. In soutlieru Siberia are broad tracts of fertile
land and gi'assy plains, which furnish pasturage for thou-
sands of cattle and horses. Gold is found along the edge
of the highland, and there are deposits of coal, iron, and
other minerals.
Branches of the Siberian rivers flow so near to one an-
other that they form, with but short intoiTUptions, a natu-
ral water way far through tho interior. It is mainly by this
route that the more distant provinces are reaehotl, though.
I a post road travei'ses this region from Tiumen, througlt
Irkutsk, to the Amur River. Find the.^e towns. They ar&
. the pi-iucipal trade centers of .Sil>eria.
I The Russian government is building a railroad across the country
! from cnFt to west. Its eastern terminus is Vladivostok. What id the
I distance from Vladivostok to St. PetersburgT What advantages will
I the compleli'in of this road give to Russia !
Siberia is very ^iiareely settled. It is larger than tho whole United
States, but contains fewer people than tho state of Pennsylvania. Must
of the inhabitants are free immigrants from European Russia. Klaiiy,
however, ai'e exiles who, having been convicted of crimes or suspected
of unfrientlly sentiments toward the government, are obliged to live
there under Russian officers appointed to watch them. There ar« also
-i-W ^■^
OU woilu at Baku.
138
near the seacoasts and mountains some
rain falls. Along the southern shores
the date palm flourishes, and there are
fine forests of cedars, elms, and oaks.
All kinds of fruit grow in the lowlands.
Wheat, barley, rice, cotton, and opium
are cultivated. The raising of cattle,
sheep, camels, and horses is the chief
business of many of the people.
Besides the Permans, Tcho compose the greater
part of the popohttion, there are many Arabs, Ar-
menians, and Turks in different jmrts of the coun-
try. The ruler of Persia is called the »ha?t.
Handmade caipets and camel's-hair
cloth are almost the only manufactures.
Trade is carried on by caravans. There
are practically no railroads or can-iage
roads. The principal esports are opium, Persian
pearls, carpets, and dates.
What is the capital of Persia! Teheran and Tabriz
are the chief centers of the caravan trade. Ispahan,
the former capital, has great bazars and magnificent
palaces. Bushire and Barfrusk are the most important
ports.
AFGHANISTAN. What oonntries sorround Afghanistan 1 Describe
its surface and its drainage.
Although the climate of Afghanistan is dry, the soil is
fertile and in many parts of the country yields two har-
vests each year. Wheat and barley are harvested in sum-
mer, and rice, millet, and corn in autumn. Fruits are
abundant, and drugs are produced.
The population of Afghanistan is made up of many
tribes, mostly of Aryan descent, all loosely united under
one ruler called the ameer.
Next to agriculture and stock raising the chief indus-
tries are the making of silk goods, felts, and carpets.
Other exports are horses, spices, and fruits.
Name the capital. Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul are for-
tified towns and centers of considerable caravan trade.
BALDCHISTAN. By
what countries and sea is
Baluchistan borderedf De-
scribe its surface and cli-
mat«.
Baluchistan is about
half as large as the state
ofTexas. Itisgoverned
by a native ruler, or
khan, who is under the
control of the British
government in India.
The people are very sim-
ilar to those of Afghan-
istan. Much of the
country is stony and
barren, but there are
good pastures, and the
nomad tribes are en-
PAfiTS OF THE EABTH.
gaged in raising camels and horses, sheepc:
and goats. Name the capital.
INDIA. Bound India. Describe the snrf&ce^
and drainage of Hindustan } of the Dekhan. De —
scribe the climate. What two rivers are fed by the «
anows on the northern slopes of the Himalayas T ^
What branch of the Indus pierces these moun- -
tains f Which slope of tlie Himalayas does the
Ganges drain t
India is about half as large as the
United States, but its population is more
than four times as great. There are peo-
ple of various types in all parts of the
country, yet they are but little mixed.
By far the largest part of the popula-
tion consists of Hindus, a dark-skinned
branch of the Aryan people.
Within the past three centuries the
English, French, and Portuguese estab-
trading stations on the coasts. The British finally
control over nearly all the native states, and now
Weaving tapestry, Persia.
govern almost the entire country, although the number of
British people in India is quite insignificant in comparison
with the dense native population. The Queen of Great
Britain is called the Empress of India. She appoints a
British goverqor general, or \'iceroy, who lives in India and
governs the country under the direction of tbe executive
branch of the British government in London.
The Hindus had attained a somewhat high degree of civilization long
before the Europeans entered their country. Some of the most beautiful
temples in the world are the work of the Hindus centuries ago. They
had a written language, an ancient literature, and a highly organized
system of society. The peculiarity of the Hindu social system is its
division into oasUa, or fixed classes. A Hindu must hve, roarry, and die
in the same class of society and follow the same occupation as his
father. This system very naturally discourages all kinds of progress,
and the Hindus have made no improvement among themselves for a
long time. The houses of the common people are small and miserable
hovels, without floors and with little or no furniture. The farming im-
plements and methods MR of the rudest description, and the fiour or meal
is generally ground by hand as shown in the picture on the opposite page.
140
PABTS OF THE EABTH,
THE COnnTRIES OF INDO-CHINA. What diviaom of Britieb
India lie east of the Bay of Bengal f What narrov peninaiila extends
Btill farther Bonth T What British poBsession ocoupies the southern part
of the Malay peninsula t What oountry oomprisea the eastern part of
Indo-China f What is the oonntiy in the central part called 1
Name the chief rivers and gulfs of Indo<China. In what direotion do
the mountain ranges extend 1
Most of the people of Indo-China are of the Mongolian
type, but there are many Malays in the south. In the
mountainous regions there
are but few inhabitants, but
in the valleys and river deltas
the population is very dense.
The chief products of Indo-
China are rice, sugar, spices,
lumber, and tin. There nve
mines of coal, iron, copper,
silver, and gold, but the re-
sources of none of the coun-
tries have yet been fully
veloped. The foreign c
Houses on the Hekonz.
merce of Indo-China is greater tbau that of any otlier
part of Asia except India. It is conducted almost
entirely by Europeans, although many of the mer-
chants are Chinese.
Upper and Lower Burma are part of the British government of India,
but the Straits Settlements form a separate British colony. Anam, with
Tonkin, Cambodia, and Cochin China, is under the control of the French,
though Anam and Cambodia have native rulers. Siam is a native king-
dom, about four times as large as the state of New York.
Name and locate the capital of Siam. Bangkok is built
partly on piles in the river and is about the size of Detroit.
Mandalaij and Rangoon are the principal cities and trade
centers of Burma. Saigon is the seat of government for
French Lido-China. Singapore, in the Straits Settlement.*,
exports tin and spices, and is important as a coaling sta-
tion for Rteamei-s and as a center of trade for the sur-
rounding region.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE. In what part of Asia U the Chinese
Empire T What waters border itt What mountains are on its soulh-
westem border; on its northwestern bordert What plaleau forms the
westeru part; the northern partt Compare it with the United States
and n-ith Europe in area and population. What are its two great rivers I
Into what does each flow t Bendes China proper, what four other eoun- xz
tries are inolnded in the Chinese Empire)
China proper, or the Middle Kingdom^ as the Chinee cjg
call it, contains about nine tenths of the population of the^ J
empire. Why is it better fitted for habitation than otherr*
parts of the empire T The Yangtze is navigable for hun — m.
dreds of miles by the largest ocean steamers. This river,^—^
with its tributaries, and the Si River to the south aflfordfci
the only easy means of com
munication in the interior. — "
TheHoangisloadedwithsed
iment and is so obstructed by ~^
sand bars that it is not nav- -
igable. It often overflows its
)>anks, causing widespread
-master to villages and farms,
1.1 several times it has
anged its course entirely.
Where is the Orand Canal, and
vliiit two rivers does it connect t It
^ a^ built more than a thonsand years
Lgo and is still much used as a high-
i-iiy of trade and communipation.
riiere are several other canals in
different partsof the country,
but owing to the prejudices
of the Chinese there are
few railroads. The public
roads are in a poor condition;
and, away from rivers and ca-
nals, goods are carried for the
most part on the backs of por-
ters.
The people of China belong
to the Mongolian type of the
yellow race, and are peculiar
in language, religion, cus-
toms, and dress. Buddhism
is a prevailing religion, but
there are many followers of
Confucius, a Chinese philoso-
pher who lived many centu-
ries ago. The strangest fea-
ture of their religion is the
worship of their ancestors.
This makes them unwilling to
leave the ways which these ancestors followed ; hence they are suspi-
cious of foreigners and dislike foreign customs. Their dress and man-
ners, and even the construction of their houses, are regulated by laws
made hundreds of years ago. It was not until near the middle of the
nineteenth century that they consented to have any intercourse with
other nations. Yet they Mere among the first people in the world to
become civilized. Silk spinning and weaving were brought to great
A Bunnese fAmily.
centuries bi'fore such arts were known in
among thi' first i)eopk' to make paper; they
■d gunpowder long before such things
'ea was introduced into Europe from
perfection by them
Eurojio, The Chinese wt
invented printing and d
were known to Europe;
China.
Tho go\emnK-ut is an al>soluto monarchy, in which the emperor ap-
points his own successor. The officers of the government aro selected by
the emperor from those scholars best informed in Chinese learning.
Everj- candidate for ofKce must pass severe exaininations.
."iducation is general among the men, but neglected among the women.
The langui^e hjis ii" alphabet ; each written character stands for a syl-
lable or word, and a Chinese boy must learn to know several thousands
of these characters by sight.
146
PAKTS OF THE IIABTH.
Lake Tchad, althoi^h having do outlet to the eea, is a fresfa-n-at«r
lake. When do the rains fall in this region T (p. 27.) At that season
&e lake is a sheet of water overflowing by an outlet to the nurllieast into
a lower region. In the dry season Qie lake becomes a great marsh, aad
its outlet is a wady, or dry stream bed. Kear the southern edge of the
Atlas highland are several deep depressions in the lowlands, called
shotta ; they contfun salt lakes during part of the year,
Life. What animals and plants are peculiar to the African life re-
glont (pp. 30, 31.) Where are the dense forestsT Where are the open
forests t Where are the deserts 1 (map, p. 28.) What is the great north-
ern desert region called (map, p. 144) ; the sonthem desert region t
More than a third of Africa consists of deserts. Some
parts of these arid regions are covered with shifting sands
and wind-foi-med dunes, with here and there fertile oases.
Other parts are stony and barren, and still others rough
and mountainous. In the oases grow date palms and
such other plants as thrust their roots deep down to the
ground water. Along the edges of the deserts are plains
where grow acacias and rough grasses like those of our
own plateau region.
In the dense forests of central Africa are sago and oil
palms, mimosa and rubber trees, besides the other plants
peculiar to this life region. Along the coasts are marshes,
where are mangrove trees and enormous grasses resem-
bling cane and bamboo. Where are the grass lands of
Africa! (map, p. 28.)
More large wild animals are found in Africa than in
any other of the grand divisions. But these are rapidly
being exterminated by white hunters. Snakes and insects
abound.
People. To what race do most of the people in central and southern
Africa belongt (p. 34.) To what race do the people in nurthem Africa
belongt What parts of Africa have a dense or moderately dense popu-
lation t (map, p. 34.) In what parts is the population very sparse f
How does the distribntaon of people oorreqxtnd with the distribution of
ruiJallt (map, p. 26.)
None of the negro tribes in Africa have advanced to the
stage of civilization, and many of them are still in the sav-
age state. The white peoples who occupy the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean are chiefly Arabs, Berbers,
and Jews. Many are quite dark-skinned. In most parts
of Africa, especially near the coasts, Europeans have es-
tablislied missionary settlements and colonies. In the
south they have built towns and roads, improved the
country, and introduced the arts of civilization.
For many centuries negroes were carried from Africa into various
countries as slaves. Into what parts of America were negro slaves In-
troduced ^ (pp. 49, 107.) Most of tlieso slaves were ohiainpd from the
countries on the west coast. The barbarous tribes in central Africa still
make slaves of the prisoners whom they capluro in war, selling them to tlie
Arab alave-dealersfrom the eastern coast. These Arabs of ten make raids
into the interior for tho purpose nf obtaining ivory and capturing slaves.
Supplemental Work. Draw on a large scale a map of Africa, nam-
ing the chief natural features. Model Africa. Write a oompariBon
148
PAET8 OP THB EABTH.
A camp on the Sahara.
cliief towns f The sultan resides part of the time in one
and part of the time in the other. Algeria is part of the
French Bepuhlic. What is its capital! It is the chief
oommercial city and seaport. At Oran there are valuable
marble quarries. Biskra, in a beautiful oasis on the edge
of the desert, is the terminus of important caravan routes.
The government of Tunis is nominally still in the hands of
a native ruler called the bey, but a French resident really has
most of the governing power. What is the capital of this
country f
THE SAHARA. How does the Bahara compare vith the United
States in eise t
The word Sahara means "desei-t," and the region to
which it is applied is the largest desert in the world. This
region is not entirely arid, however, for there are many
oases ; some of them are many miles in extent, and there
date palms, olive trees, wheat, and barley are grown. The
region is very sparsely peopled by wandering tribes of
Arabs. The most important product of the Sahara is
Bait from deposits at Kawar and Taudeni. Most of this is
bartered to ^e natives of central Africa.
Supplemental Work. Find out about the life and work of " Chinese
QordoD." Find oat about the troables our oonntry once had with the
Barbary pirates. Bead " A Family Flight over Egypt and Syria," by
Hale ; " The Romance of a Mummy," by T, Oantder ; " Winters is Al-
gvia," by F. A. Bridgeman ; or " The Cat of Bnbastes,"" by Henty.
CENTRAL AFMCA.
Central AMoa inclndes the region between the Sahara and the Zam-
bea River. Describe the surface and drainage of this re^on ; the dis-
toibntion of heat and moisture. Where are the forestal (map, p. 28.)
Where are the prairies T What is the region jost souUi of the Sahara
calledf (p. 144.)
The climate of the central plateau is more healthful
than that of the coast, and the soil is generally fertile.
The forests contain valuable woods, rubber-yielding vines,
trees yielding gums from which varnish is made, the
palm, from whose fruit is obtained palm oil used in mak-
ing soap, and other useful plants. In these forests are
herds of elephants, and in the rivers are hippopotamuses.
The tusks and teetii of these animals are exported ira ■"■
ivory. In parts of the region the tsetse fly carries a ilin r^i
ease that is fatal to cattle and horses; but through— .cf
out the upper meadow lands cattle and sheep may bc^cJ
raised, while bananas, com, rice, cotton, tobacco, cacao,K<:>-
sugar, and, at higher elevations, wheat can be grown^x:^
with ease.
Tins region is the true home of the n^ro, and in it live most of &e ^v-*
negroes in the worid. What part of die re^n is most densdy peopled! ^ -
(m^, p. 34.) The natives of the interior are generally more intelligent ^ *
and sturdy than those near the coast. Many of them weave a cloth of "^
palm fiber, make rude canoes, spears, and bows and arrows, and many '^
use firearms and weapons obtained from white men. Some cultivate
the soil, and some are good fishermen. In this region also live the pyg-
mies, a dwarfish people of the black race. The eastern Sudan is oocu.
pied by a Mohammedan people of mixed Arab and nc^ro descent, who
have disputed the Egyptian control of this region.
It is only recently that central Africa has been explored
by civilized man, but now five European nations claim
nearly the whole of the region.
Name and locate the regions claimed by various European nations on
the east coast between the Strait of Bab el Mandeb and the Zambesi
(small map, p. 144) ; on the west coast of central Africa, south of the
mouth of the Niger. What state occupies much of the interior of equa-
torial Africa 1 Locate and name the owners of the divisions of the
went coast between the Niger and Cape Verde. What European nation
claims most of the interior of this region 1
The European " possessions " in central Africa have generally grown
from a few trading settlements made ^long the coasts by white men.
After the traders had secured a foothold, the home government sent oat
soldiers and oflicera to protect and manage the affairs of the colony, and
to extend its "sphere of influeace" in the tributary country in the
interior.
The exports from most of these possessions are similar,
and consist chiefly of palm oil, mbber, ivory, varnish ^ms,
hides, and some cotton, sugar, and coffee.
Sirrra Leone was founded during the time when the slave trade was
fiourishing, and was intended as a place of refuge for negroes rescued
from slave ships. Liberia is a negro republic. It was formed during
the time of slavery in our country by some of our citisens as a home for
freed slaves from the United States. Its capital was named after one of
our preridents.
lie Kongo State was established by the Eoropean powers for the puiv
poses of trade. The King of the Bel^ans was chosen its ruler, altbongh
TndlBg post oa tte Xooco.
152
but the great kangaroos
and the ostrichlike casso-
waries and emus live on
the open plains.
People. How doc-s Australia
compare with Ohio la size; in
population t Australia is the moiit
thinly settled of all the granJ
divisions of the land. What
part of Australia is least sparsely
settled! (p. 3i.) Fully throe
fourths of all the people live in
this Bouthea8t«m portion, while
much of the western portion is
practically uQiohabited and but
partly explored.
^Vheu wiiite men first
settled in Australia, about
a hundred years ago, they
found its only inhabitants
to be a fen' tribes of do-
graded, black-skinned sav-
ages. Of these but few
remain. Most of the pres- MatlTe Australian,
ent inhabitants are emi-
grants from the British Isles or their descendants, though
tliere are some Chinese, Malay, and Hindu laboi-ers.
About the beginning of the nineteenth century some of
the emigrants brought the iirst sheep and cattle to Aus-
tralia and started the industry of stock raising. Australia
is now the greatest of wool-producing, and one of the
greatest meat-exporting countries. Nearly one half of tlie
land in Australia is devoted to sheep farms and cattle
ranges. Agriculture is carried on with improved machin-
ery in the moist east and south coast region, as in the
.United States, and some wheat is exported, but all the
crops raised have only half the value of the wool and
meat.
Gold, silver, coal, copper, and tin are mined principally
on the inner slope of the easteni highland. Nearly one
fourth of the world's supply of gold comes from Australia,
yet the yearly product from all the mines is but one fifth
as valuable as the pastoral and fann products.
More than half the people live in cities, and manufactur-
ing is an important industry, but much ctoth, machinery, .
and general manufactures are imported. About three
fourths of the foreign tra^le is witli (ireat Britain. There
is an extensive system of railroads in tlie southeast, and
the continent is connected with Eurasia by telegraph cable.
Government and Divisions. AustraUa belongs to Great Britain and
is divided into five colonies, which, with Tasmania, form the Common-
wealth of Australia. This federation has a governor-general appointed
by the queen, and a parliament to which the people elect members.
Name the oolonies of Australia. Which is the largest ; the smallest '
Bound Victoria. Describe its surface. Name its capi-
tal. It is the great agricultural and coal-mining colony,
and has also large pastoral and manufacturing interests.
The chief exports are wool, gold, meat products, and wheat.
Melbourne, about as large as Boston, is the center of
FABTS OF THE EABTH.
many railroad lines, and the chief port of the colonj^^.
Ballarat is in the gold fields.
Bound Nciv South Wales. Describe the surface. Namixa
the capital. This is the oldest and wealthiest colony. lit
supplies one half of the wool product of Australia, besides^
much wheat, corn, sugar cane, and wine, and manjC-"
oranges. Gold, silver, and coal are extensively minedS3
Sydney is but little smaller than Melboiu'ue, and has as.
much larger foreign commerce.
Bound Quet'>is!a)i(f. Describe the surface. Name the^
capital. Nearly half tlio surface is forested. Com andS^
sugar cane are the chief crops. In the interior many ^
sheep are pastured, and more than half the cattle in Aus- •
tnilia. Mucli gold is mined, and some coal. There are
many Chinese and pi^iple from tlie East Indian islands.
The cliief exports are ■wool, gi'ld, preserved and frozen
meats, tallow, an<l hidcw.
Bound Soiifk Australia. Describe its surface and name
its capital. It has rich copj)er mines, and raises important
crops of wheat and graiies. The chief exports are wool,
wlieat, flour, and copper. Adelaide is the only large city.
Bouiul Western Australia. Describe the surface and
name the capital. Its const regions are less fertile than is
the surrounding country nearer the sources of the rivers.
Australian gold mine.
Gold forms the most valuable export, though much wool
is also exported. Penh is the chief city.
Supplementbi Work. r)raw circles representing the eastern and
wtsteru heniisplieres, and Hketeh Ihi- tcrand divisions. Model Australia.
Riad" Harry Heathtotf of (Jiiuf,™!," by Aulhoay TroUope.
ISLAND GROUPS.
' oquable in eliiiiat« than is Aos-
id name its eapital.
TASMANIA. This islaii.l is tn.
tratia. 1iMiy I Desfribe its surface
Tasmania is suiTouiidc-d by many small islands, and its
coast has many bays. It is callwl the " Switzerland of the
South," because of its mountainous suilace.
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS.
Physical Features. What is the earth's size ; shape ; movements f
What are the effects of those movements on the distribution of light ;
heatf On the circulation of the air; of the ocean f On the tides f
Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in their proportions of
land and water ; in the circulation of air ; the distribution of heat.
Make a list of the world's great lowlands, and tell of each its climate,
products, the nations which inhabit it. Make a list of the world's great
plateaus, and tell of each its general elevation, climate, and products, and
the nations which occupy it. Make a list of the world's great mountain
systems and compare them in height; continuity; the number and
height of their mountain peaks.
Indicate on the map evidences of movements of the earth's crust;
of water erosion ; of deposition ; of the work of winds on surface forms.
Mention some places where cataracts occur. Where are there conti-
nental glaciers; valley glaciers; evidences of former glaciers?
Name the chief rivers draining the Atlantic -Arctic slope in Eurasia;
North America ; Africa ; South America. Compare these rivers of Eura-
sia with those of Africa in size of basin, volume of water, usefulness.
Compare those of Eurasia with those of North America ; those of South
America with those* of North America; those of Africa with those of
South America. Name the chief rivers draining the Pacific and Indian
Ocean slope in Africa; Eurasia; Australia; America. Compare these
river systems of North America with those of Africa ; those of North
America with those of Eurasia ; those of Eurasia with those of Africa ;
those of Australia with the others. Make a list of the world's great lake
regions. Tell of each the names, causes, outlets, and uses of the chief lakes.
Name the world's g^at seas and bays ; important isthmuses ; straits ;
peninsulas ; islands. Tell of each island or island group what you know
of its origin, climate, and surface.
Climate. Where are the summers temperate and the winters cold t
Compare these regions in latitude and altitude. What plants and ani-
mals live there t What races of ment How dense is the population t
Where are the summers hot and the winters cold ? Where are the sum-
mers hot and the winters temperate t Where is the entire year tem-
perate t In what heat belts do the most advanced nations live in South
America; in North America; in Eurasia; in Africa; in Australia?
Describe and account for the trade winds ; equatorial calms ; tropical
oalms ; prevailing westerly winds ; monsoons. Why do these belts move
northward and southward during the year? What is the effect of this
movement f Account for cyclones.
Make a list of the regions of heavy rainfall, and try to account for the
existence of each. Locate the largest regions of moderately heavy rain.
Compare the positions of the areas of interior drainage in the northern
and southern hemispheres; in the two northern grand divisions; in the
three southern grand divisions. Compare the positions of the rainless
regions of the world ; of the desert regions. Compare the maps on pp.
26 and 28; what are the chief farming regions of the world f What
great regions suited by climate for farming are still forest-covered f
Where are there great herding regions f Compare them in climate.
Life. Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in the pe-
cuHarity of their life forms. Name the great life regions. In which are
the life forms most peculiar t Which two regions are most nearly alike
in life forms t Which region is nearly identical with a continent f What
regrions cover parts of two grand divisions ; only part of a grand divi-
sion f Locate and account for three transitional regions. Which graud
division contains forms belonging to three different regions f Describe the
life forms of South America ; North America ; Eurasia ; Africa, Australia.
Man. Tell about the stages of man's progress. Wliere is it thought
that civilization first existed t Tell of its spread over Asia, and its pres-
ent condition there. Tell of its spread over Europe, North America,
South America, Africa, and Australia ; and describe its condition in each
of these grand divisions. What parts of the world are not yet explored ;
not yet civilized t
Is population denser in the eastern or in the western hemisphere ; in
the northern or in the southern f In what grand division is it densest ; least
dense f Explain the locations of the most densely peopled regions of
South America ; North America , Africa ; Australia ; Eurasia. In what
regions is the sparseness of the population due to cold } to little moisti
and vegfetation ; to much moisture and vegetation t
On an outline map of the world show the distribution of the chief
ligfious beliefs, and compare these regfions in civiUzation and wealth.
Make a list of the races of man. Tell of each where it is found ; i«~ .
advancement ; the chief nations representing it.
Agriculture and Herding. What are the world's great wheat-proczz
ducing regions t In what respects are they similar f What regions pr o*^-
duce rice ; corn ; tea ; cotton ; flax f Name some fruits which enter int^-=
the world's trade, and tell where each is g^rown. Where are cattle, hn gss=g
sheep, and fowls raised f Make a list of other domestic food animals «
where are they raised t Name some regions which export food. Why "^
Name some which import food. Whyt What do they exchange foi^c:
the imported food?
Fishing. Make a list of some of the best ocean fishing groundi
What kind of fish are caught in each t Name waters famous for oysters ;«
salmon; sponges; pearls; coral.
Lumbering. Locate some of the world's great lumbering regions.
Make a list of useful forest products ; tell where each b obtained, and
how it is used.
Mining. Make a list of mineral products produced by the alteration
of vegetable or animal remains. How was coal formed f How is it mined t
Locate the world's great coal- mining regions ; regions which export coal ;
regions which import it. Where are the world's great petroleum regfionst
What mineral ranks next to coal in importance f How is it mined t Where
is it produced ; manufactured t Why is it important to find coal and iron
near each other f When both are not found in the same region, which is
usually transported to the other t Name some cities which manufacture
iron and steel. Where do gold and silver occur ? How were they de-
posited t How are they mined f Where are they found f Make a Ust of
other mineral products, and tell about their occurrence, mining, and uses.
Manufacture. In what two ways may manufacture be done t Where
do primitive methods prevail? Where do modem methods prevail Y
Compare these regions with those of dense population ; of iron and coal
production. Make a list of manufactured products ; tell in what regions
each is made, and name some cities famous for it.
Commerce. Define commerce; foreign commerce; domestic com-
merce. Where are railroads numerous ; few t Give instances of the in-
fiuence of surface forms upon railroad routes ; of great natural obstacles
overcome in building railroads. For what purposes are canals better
than railways t Locate some canals and show why they are useful. Tell
what you can of the methods of using canals ; of improving rivers ; har-
bors. How do governments aid commerce in their own countries ; in
foreign countries f Illustrate the comfort and convenience gained by
commerce ; the discomfort and distress occasioned by its absence.
From the map on pp. 154, 155, tell through what places a message
might pass if sent by telegpraph and cable from New Zealand to San
Francisco ; from Valparaiso to Yokohama ; from Cape Town to St.
Petersburg.
Countries. Make a list of the divisions and colonial possessions of
the British Empire. Tell of each its resources and products ; its history ;
what it contributes to and receives from the rest of the empire. Name
and describe the world's other great empires. Make lists of the world's
constitutional and absolute monarchies. Compare the two lists in civiliz-
ation, wealth, and power. Tell of each country its history, people, and
contributions to the world's trade. Make a list of the colonial possessions
of France ; Germany ; the Netherlands ; Portugal.
Cities. From the tables on pp. 157-159, make a list of the twenty
most populous cities of the world. Tell about each its position, general
appearance, importance, and industries ; the kind of country surrounding
it ; its trade facilities ; and something of its historj' and inhabitants. What
route might you follow, and what goods might you carry each way in mak-
ing trips between Halifax and Madras ; Odessa and Vera Cruz ; Adelaide
and Valparaiso ; San Francisco and Venice ; Batum and Zanzibar; Du-
luth and Dublin ; Cape Town and Amsterdam ; Havana and Glasgow t
156
CORRELATIONS AND COMPARISONS.
PhjTSical Features. What is the earth's size; shape; movements f
What are the effects of these movements on the distribution of light ;
heatf On the circulation of the air; of the ocean f On the tides f
Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in their proportions of
land and water ; in the circulation of air ; the distribution of heat.
Make a list of the world's great lowlands, and tell of each its climate,
products, the nations which inhabit it. Make a list of the world's great
plateaus, and tell of each its general elevation, climate, and products, and
the nations which occupy it. Make a list of the world's great mountain
systems and compare them in height; continuity; the number and
height of their mountain peaks.
Indicate on the map evidences of movements of the earth's crust;
of water erosion ; of deposition ; of the work of winds on surface forms.
Mention some places where cataracts occur. Whore are there conti-
nental glaciers; valley glaciers; evidences of former glaciers?
Name the chief rivers draining the Atlantic-Arctic slope in Eurasia ;
North America ; Africa ; South America. Compare these rivers of Eura-
sia with those of Africa in size of basin, volume of water, usefulness.
Compare those of Eurasia with those of North America ; those of South
America with those' of North America; those of Africa with those of
South America. Name the chief rivers draining the Pacific and Indian
Ocean slope in Africa ; Eurasia ; Australia ; America. Compare these
river systems of North America with those of Africa ; those of North
America with those of Eurasia ; those of Eurasia with those of Africa ;
those of Australia with the others. Make a list of the world's great lake
regions. Tell of each the names, causes, outlets, and uses of the chief lakes.
Name the world's g^at seas and bays ; important isthmuses ; straits ;
peninsulas ; islands. Tell of each island or island group what you know
of its origin, climate, and surface.
Climate. Where are the summers temperate and the winters cold t
Compare these regions in latitude and altitude. What plants and ani-
mals live there t What races of men ? How dense is the population t
Where are the summers hot and the winters cold ? Where are the sum-
mers hot and the winters temperate t Where is the entire year tem-
perate f In what heat belts do the most advanced nations live in South
America; in North America; in Eurasia; in Africa; in Australia?
Describe and account for the trade winds ; equatorial calms ; tropical
cahns ; prevailing westerly winds ; monsoons. Why do these belts move
northward and southward during the year t What is the -effect of this
movement t Account for cyclones.
Make a list of the regions of heavy rainfall^ and try to account for the
existence of each. Locate the largest reg^ions of moderately heavy rain.
Compare the positions of the areas of interior drainage in the northern
and southern hemispheres ; in the two northern grand divisions ; in the
three southern grand divisions. Compare the positions of the rainless
regions of the world ; of the desert regions. Compare the maps on pp.
26 and 28; what are the chief farming regions of the world f What
great regions suited by climate for farming are still forest-covered f
Where are there great herding regions? Compare them in climate.
Life. Compare the northern and southern hemispheres in the pe-
culiarity of their life forms. Name the great life regions. In which are
the life forms most peculiar t Which two regions are most nearly alike
in life forms t Which region is nearly identical with a continent t What
regrions cover parts of two grand divisions ; only part of a grand divi-
sion t Locate and account for three transitional regions. Which grand
division contains forms belonging to three different regions f Describe the
life forms of South America ; North America ; Eurasia ; Africa, Australia.
Man. Tell about the stages of man's progress. Where is it thought
that civilization first existed t Tell of its spread over Asia, and its pres-
ent condition there. Tell of its spread over Europe, North America,
South America, Africa, and Australia ; and describe its condition in each
of these grand divisions. What parts of the world are not yet explored ;
not yet civilized t
Is population denser in the eastern or in the western hemisphere ; in
the northern or in the southern ? In what grand division is it densest ; least
dense t Explain the locations of the most densely peopled regions of
South America ; North America j Africa ; Australia ; Eurasia. In what
regions is the sparseness of the population due to cold ; to little moisture^^
and vegetation ; to much moisture and vegetation t
On an outline map of the world show the distribution of the chief re
ligious behefs, and compare these regions in civilization and wealth.
Make a list of the races of man. Tell of each where it is found ; its asb
advancement ; the chief nations representing it.
Agriculture and Herding. What are the world's great wheat-pro- —
ducing regions t In what respects are they similar t What regions pro- —
duce rice ; corn ; tea ; cotton ; flax t Name some fruits which enter into ^
the world's trade, and tell where each is grown. Where are cattle, hogs,
sheep, and fowls raised f Make a list of other domestic food animals ;
where are they raised f Name some regions which export food. Why t
Name some which import food. Whyt What do they exchange for
the imported food?
Fishing. Make a list of some of the best ocean fishing grounds.
What kind of fish are caught in each ? Name waters famous for oysters ;
salmon; sponges; pearls; coral.
Lumbering. Locate some of the world's g^eat lumbering regions.
Make a list of useful forest products ; tell where each is obtained, and
how it is used.
Mining. Make a list of mineral products produced by the alteration
of vegetable or animal remains. How was coal formed ? How is it mined ?
Locate the world's great coal- mining regions ; regions which export coal ;
regions which import it. Where are the world's great petroleum regrions ?
What mineral ranks next to coal in im portance ? How is it m ined ? Where
is it produced ; manufactured ? Why is it important to fijid coal and iron
near each other ? When both are not found in the same region, which is
usually transported to the other? Name some cities which manufacture
iron and steel. Where do gold and silver occur? How were they de-
posited ? How are they mined ? Where are they found ? Make a list of
other mineral products, and tell about their occurrence, mining, and uses.
Manufacture. In what two ways may manufacture be done ? Where
do primitive methods prevail? Where do modem methods prevail?
Compare these regions with those of dense population ; of iron and coal
production. Make a list of manufactured products ; tell in what regions
each is made, and name some cities famous for it.
Commerce. Define commerce; foreign commerce; domestic com-
merce. Where are railroads numerous ; few ? Give instances of the in-
fluence of surface forms upon railroad routes ; of great natural obstacles
overcome in building railroads. For what purposes are canals better
than railways ? Locate some canals and show why they are useful. Tell
what you can of the methods of using canals ; of improving rivers 5 har-
bors. How do governments aid commerce in their own countries ; in
foreign countries? Illustrate the comfort and convenience gained by
conmierce ; the discomfort and distress occasioned by its absence.
From the map on pp. 154, 155, tell through what places a message
might pass if sent by telegpraph and cable from New Zealand to San
Francisco ; from Valparaiso to Yokohama ; from Cape Town to St.
Petersburg.
Countries. Make a list of the divisions and colonial possessions of
the British Empire. Tell of each its resources and products ; its history;
what it contributes to and receives from the rest of the empire. Name
and describe the world's other great empires. Make lists of the world's
constitutional and absolute monarchies. Compai'e the two lists in civiliz-
ation, wealth, and power. Tell of each country its history, people, and
contributions to the world's trade. Make a list of the colonial possessions
of France ; Germany ; the Netherlands ; Portugal.
Cities. From the tables on pp. 157-159, make a list of the twenty
most populous cities of the world. TeU about each its position, general
appearance, importance, and industries ; the kind of country surrounding
it ; its trade facilities ; and something of its historj' and inhabitants. What
route might you follow, and what goods might you carry each way in mak-
ing trips between Halifax and Madras ; Odessa and Vera Cruz ; Adelaide
and Valparaiso ; San Francisco and Venice ; Batum and Zanzibar; Du-
luth and Dublin ; Cape Town and Amsterdam ; Havana and Glasgow f
156
158
TABLES.
1800
Census.
Charleston, W. Va. ... 6,742
Charlotte, N. C 11,557
Chattanooga, Tenn. . . . 29,100
Chelsea, Mass. 27,909
Cheyenne, Wyo 11,090
Chicago, lU 1,099,850
Cincinnati, Ohio 296,908
aeveland, Ohio 261,353
Colorado SpringS| CoL . 11, 140
Columbia, S. C 15,353
Columbus, Ga 17,803
Columbus. Ohio 88,150
Concord, N. H 17,004
Council Bluffs, Iowa . . 21.474
Covington, Ky 37,371
Cumberland, Md. 12,729
Dallas, Tex 38,067
Davenport. Iowa 26,872
Dayton, Ohio 61,220
Deadwood, S. D 2,366
Denver, Col 106,713
Des Moines, Iowa 50,093
Detroit, Mich 205,876
Dover, Del 3,061
Dover, N.H 12,790
Dubuque, Iowa 30,311
Duluth, Minn 33,115
Durham, N. C 5,485
Elgin, HI 17,823
Elizabeth, N. J. 37,764
Elmira, N . Y 30,893
Erie,Pa. 40,634
Svansville, Ind 50,756
Fall River, Mass 74,398
Fargo.N.D 5,664
Fort Smith, Aric 11,311
Fort Wayne, Ind 85,893
Fort Worth, Tex. 23,076
Frankfort, Ky 7,892
Galveston, Tex 29,084
Gloucester, Biass 24,651
Grand Forks, N. D 4,979
Grand Rapids, Mich.. . 60,278
Great Falls, Mont 8,979
Greenville, Miss. 6,658
Greenville, a C 8,607
Guthrie, Okla. 2,788
Harrisburg, Pa. 89,385
Hartford, Conn. 58,230
Haverhill, Mass. 27,412
Helena, Mont. 13,834
Hoboken, N. J. . 43,648
Holyoke, Mass. 85,637
Hot Sprines, Ark. 8,066
Houston, Tex 27,557
Huntington, W. Va. . . • 10,108
Huntsvule, Ala 7,995
Indianapolis, Ind. — 105,496
Jackson, Miss 5,920
Jacksonville, Fla 17,201
Jefferson City. Mo 6,742
Jersey City, N. J 163,003
Joliet, 111 28,264
Kansas City, Kan 88,316
Kansas City, Mo 182,716
Key West, Fla. 18,080
Knoxville, Tenn. 22,535
La Crosse, Wis. 25,090
Lancaster, Pa. 82,011
Lansing, Mioh. 18^102
MORB RBCEVT
Endme&ation.
31,264
1,619,226
(^96)
20,189 C95)
30,010
4,204
56,359
237,837
40,574
59,396
43,834
29,911
C95)
C95)
('95)
(^94)
(^95)
('95)
C95)
C92)
89,203 C95)
28,211
79,424
C95)
C94)
80,209 (W)
54,083
40,322
('OS)
25,130
COS)
182,713
(W)
40,676
COS)
16,S02
{W)
28,760
COO)
15,847
m)
1890
Census.
Laramie, Wvo 6,388
Las Vegas, N. M 2,385
Lawrence, Mass 44,654
Leadville, Col 10,384
Leavenworth, Kan. . . . 19,768
Lewiston, Me. 21,701
Lexington. Ky 21,567
Unco^ Neb 55,154
Little Rock. Ark. 25,874
Logan, Utah 4,565
Los Angeles, Cal 50,395
Louisvillo, Ky 161,129
Lowell, Mass 77,696
Lynchburg, Va 19,709
Lynn, Mass. 55,727
Macon, Ga 22,746
MadisoD, Wis 13,426
Manchester, N. H 44,126
Memphis, Tenn 64,495
Moridpn, Conn 21,652
Meridian, Miss 10,624
Milwaukee, Wis 204,468
Minneapolis, Minn. . . . 164,738
Mobile, Ala 31,076
Montgomery, Ala. . . . 21,883
Montpelier, Vt 4,160
Nashua, N. H 19,311
Nashville, Tenn 76,168
Natchez, Miss 10,101
New Albany, Iiid 21,059
Newark, N. J 181,830
New Bedford, Mass. . . . 40,733
Newborn, N. C 7,843
New Britain, Conn. . . . 16,519
New Haven, Conn 81,298
New Orleans, La 242,039
Newport, Ky 24,918
Newport, R. 1 19,457
Newport News, Va. . . . 4,449
New York, N. Y.
New York 1,515,301
Brooklyn 806,343
Long Island City 30,506
Norfolk, Va 34,871
Oakland, Cal 48,682
Ogden, Utah 14,889
OklahomajJ)kla. 4,151
Olympia, Wash. 4,698
Omaha, Neb 140,452
Oshkosh, Wis 22,836
Parkersburg, W. Va. . . 8,408
Paterson, N. J 78,347
Pawtucket, E. 1 27,633
Pensacola, Fla 11,750
Peoria, m. 41,024
Petersburg, Va 22,680
Philadelphia, Pa 1,046,964
Phoenix, Ariz 3,152
Pierre, 8. D 3,235
Pine Bluff, Ark. 9,952
Pittsburg, Pa 238,617
Portland, Me 36,425
Portland, Ore 46,385
Portsmouth, N. H 9,827
Providence, R. 1 132,146
Provo (Jity, Utah 5,159
Pueblo, CIoL 24,558
Quincy, HI 81,494
Racine, WiB 21,014
Ralei(B^, N. C 12,678
More Bacmr
SNDMBRAnON.
52,164 C95)
20,822 ('95)
0,756 (W)
84,367 C95)
62,354 (W)
15,950 C95)
249,290 C95)
192,833 ('95)
215,806 (^95)
55,251 ('95)
21,637 (W)
3,500,000 C98)
1,801,639 ('92)
957,163 ('92)
35,745 ('92)
15,828 ('95)
26,947 ('95)
97,344 ('95)
32,573 ('95)
14,084 COd)
1,776 ^95)
81,342 ('95)
145,472 ('95)
5,992 ('95)
24,889 ('95)
Readinff^ Pft. 58,661
Reno, Nev. 8,563
Richmond, Va. 81,388
Roanoke, Va 16,159
I^hester, N. Y 133,896
Rockford, DL 23,584
Rock Springs, Wyo. . . . 3,406
Rutland, Vt 11,760
Sacramento, Cal 26,386
Saginaw, Mich 46,322
St. Albans^ Vt. 7,771
St. Augustine, Fla. . . 4,742
St. Joseph. Mo 52,324
St. Louis, Mo 451,770
St. Paul, Minn 133,156
Salem, Mass. 30,801
Salem, Ore 10,470
Salt Lake City, Utah . . 44,843
San Antonio, Tex 37,673
San Diego, Cal. 16,159
San Francisco, Cal 298,997
San Jose, Cal 18,060
Santa F6, N. M 6,185
Savannah, Ga. 43,189
Scranton, Pa. 75,215
Seattle, Wash 42,837
Selma, Ala 7,622
Shreveport, La. 11.979
Sioux City, Iowa 37,806
Sioux Falls, a D 10, 177
Somerville, Mass 40,152
South Bend, Ind 21,819
South Omaha, Neb 8,062
Spartanburg, S. C 5,544
Spokane, Wash 19,922
Springfield, 111 24,963
Springfield, Mass. 44, 179
Springfield, Mo 21,850
Springfield, Ohio 31,895
Stockton, Cal 14,424
Superior, Wis 11,983
Syracuse, N. Y 88.143
Tacoma, Wash 36,006
Tallahassee, Fla 2,934
Tampa, Fla 5,532
Taunton, Mass 25,448
Terre Haute, Ind. .... 80,217
Toledo, Ohio 81,434
Topeka, Kan. 81,007
Trenton, N. J 57,458
Troy, N. Y. 60,956
Tucson, Ariz. 5,150
Utica, N. Y 44,007
Vicksburg, Miss. 13,373
Virginia City, Nev. . . . 8,511
Waco, Tex. 14,445
Washington, D. C 230,392
WaterburyjConn 28,646
Wheeling, W. Va 34,522
Wichita, Kan 23,853
Wilkesbarre, Pa 37,718
Williamsport, Pa. 27, 1 32
Wilmington, Del 61,431
Wilndngton, N. C . . . . 20,056
Winona, Minn 18 208
Winston, N. C 8,018
Woonsocket, R. 1 20,830
Worcester, Mass 84,655
Vonkers, N. Y 32,033
Youngstown, Ohio .... 33,220
MOBB Bmcemt
Bmumbraxiok.
144,834 CSS
44,642 CO!
4,151 (W
140,292 CSS
34,473 CSS
48,076 (W
27,371 ("95
9,002 ('95
52,200 ^96
51,522 (%;
26,168 ('95
91,994 ('92
3,931 C%
15,634 CK
27,115 ('9E
30,151 ('9i
62,618 C9i
64,986 C9
46,608 CB
20,841 (\
20,649 (1
24.468 C
98,767 (*
31,419 ('
POPULATION OF FOREIGN CITIES.
Aberdeen, Scotland . . . 124,943 (^1) I
Adelaide, Australia . . . 144,352 ('95)
Alexandria, Egypt . . 319,767 ('97)
Algiers, Algeria 92,120 ('96)
AlUhabad, India 175,246 ('91)
Amsterdam, Neth 494,189 {*96)
Antofagasta, Chile .. . 13,530 ('95)
Antwerp, Belgium 267,902 ('96)
Arequipa, Peru 30,000 ('89)
Asuncion, Paraguay . . 45,000
Athens, Greece 111,486 ('96)
Auckland, N. Zealand. 31,424 ('96)
Bagdad, Turkey 145,000
Bahia, BrazU 200,000 ('92)
Baku, Transcaucasia. . 112,253 ('97)
Ballarat, Australia .... 24,257 ('91)
Bangalore, India 180.366 ('91)
Bangkok, Slam 200.000
Barcelona, Spain ... 272,481 ('87)
Barfrush, Persia 50,000
Barranguilla, Colom. . . 40,000
Basel, Switzerland ... 89,687 ('97)
Batavia,Java 114,566 ('95)
Beirut, Turkey 120,000
Belfast, Ireland 255,950 ('91)
Belgrade, Servia 59,237 ('97)
Benares, India 219,467 COl)
Bergen, Norway 52,803 ('91 )
Berlin, Germany 1,677,304 COS)
Bern, Switzerland . . . 49,030 ('97)
Bilbao, Spain 50,772 ('87)
Birmingham, England. 501,241 ('96)
Bloemfontein,Or.Fr.St 5,817 ('92)
Bogota, Colombia 120,000 ('86)
Bologna, Italy 151,206 ('90)
Bombay, India 821,764 (*91 )
Bordeaux, France 256,906 ('96)
Bradford, England . . 228,809 ('96)
Bremen, Germany 141,894 ('95)
Breslau, Germany ... 378,250 ('95)
Brisbane, Australia . . . 95,000
Bristol, England 230,623
Brussels, Belgium . . . 194,505
Budapest, Himgary . 491,938
Buenos Aires, Arg 72r),554
Bukharest, Roumauia . 232,009
Bushire, Persia 20,000
Cairo, Egypt 576,400
Calcutta. India 810,786
Callao, Peru 35,000
Canton, China 2,000,000
Cape Town, Cape Col. . 51,251
Caracas, Venezuela . . 72,429
Cardiff, Wales 162,690
Catania, Italy 127,117
Cawnpur, India 188,712
Cayenne, Fr. Guiana . . 12,351
Cetinje, Montenegro . . 2,920
('harlottetown, Canada 11,374
Chemnitz, Germany. . . 161,017
(W)
(^91)
('89)
('96)
hi)
('91)
('96)
('90)
C91)
('91)
('95)
Chilian, Chile 28,738
Chritttiania, Norway . . 148,213
Cochabamba, Bolivia. . 29,530
Cologne, Germany 321,564
Colombo, Ceylon 126,926
Concepcion, Chile 39,837
Constantinople, Turk. . 873,565
Copenhagen, Denmark. 312,859
Cordova, Argentina . . . 47,609
Cuzco, Peru 22,000
Damascus, Turkey . . 150,000
Danzig, Germany . . . 125,605
Delhi, India .' 192,579
Dresden, Germany ... 336,440
Dublin, Ireland 245,001
Dundee, Scotland .... 153,587
Dunedin, New Zealand. 22,815
Dusseldorf, Germany . 175,985
Edinburgh, Scotland 263,646
Essen, Germany 96,128
INDEX
Ain>
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
EEY.~ VowBLB : ft In Iftte, & in fftt, ft in cftre, ft in fftr, ft in Iftst, § in f^^l, ^ in w^fl, n in fln^, aa in aathor ; S in mS, 6 in mSt, b^rry,
§ in vgily S in t^rni, 9 in uov^l ; I in fine, I in tin, I In police, Jt in basjn ; in nOte, 5 in nOt, 6 in 86n, 6 in Idr, 9 in dg ; a in tOne, ik in
nttt, \L in r^de (= 9), \i in iXill, a = French u, ua = wa» ue = we ; S in my, f in hj^n. Consonants : q in ^ent, mavhiiiey e in ean ; ^ in
iem, g in ^et ; k = Qerman cli ; n = ng, 11 like ny in barnyard, H = ng bat is sUent ; g = s ; tli in thine ; { •= gz* IkMe letter* are tUent,
Ab-ts-dnl-a 149
A-cdD-cft'gu&, Mt. 100
Ad'e-laid^ 152
A'dfin 137
Adi-r5n'daok Mts. 68
Ad.ri4lt'ic 113
.^^'an ($-) 113
Af-ftft&n-Is-tftn' 138
Af' ri-ca 9, 17, 144-149
African life region 29, 30,
31,146
ag'ri-cul-ture 37, 38, 57,
58, 66, 78, 85, 89, 108,
• 120, 139, 141, 147, 152
Ak'ron 73
Al-a-bft'ma 81
A-lft8'ka 91, 47, 49
Al'ba-ny (al'-) 69
Al'b^mart^ Sd. 80
Al-bert'a 94
Al-b^-quer'que (-kar'ka)
87
AI.d¥4ln'drl.a 147
Al-gS'rI-ft 147, 148, 145
Al-Sters' 148
Al'^-g:&a-ny plateaus 50,
51
Al'^-g/i^ny 70
al-lfl'vl-um 18, 19
Al-mft-den' 129
Alps 114, 115
Al.8&c«'-Ldr-ratn0' 124
Al-tar Mts. 114
Al-tft-ma-ha' (al-) 80
Al'Uing9r- •
Am'a-zdn 104, 105, 108
a-meer' 138
A-mdr'I-ca: see Western
Continent
Am'ster-d&m 125
A-mar' 114, 115
An-a^on'da 86
A-nftm' 140
An'des 103, 104
An-dor'rft 129
An-dros-cog'^n 63
Aq[^'gle§ 119
ftnM-mals 28-32, 38, 47, 93,
95, 97, 105, 107, 115, 116,
146, 151, 152
An-n&p'o-lis 71
Ann Ar'bor 75
An'nis-ton 81
An-tftrc'tic 9, 24
An-tl-ods'tl 93
An-m'leg 99, 100
An-to-fft-gfts'tft 110
Antwerp 128
tp-a-l&cn'ee Bay 81
rpa-l&ch-I-co'lft 81
Ap'sn-n!n^ll4
Ap-pa-la'cm-an 45. 50, 51
K59
A-rft'U-a 137, 113
£r'&bs 33, 137, 138, 142
146, 147, 148
l-rft-fa'rft 153
A-rttgikat' 108
Ar'al 17, 115
ar-em-pSra-go 9
Aro'tic 9, 24, 27, 03
A-re^iui'pa (-ke'.) 110
Ar-irSn-trna 109, 108
%-ris'to-crat8 36
Ar^I-zo'na 87, 17, 29
Ar'kgn-sas 82
Ar-me'n]f-aD8l37, 138
^-roos'took o3
MstS'sian (-zhgn) well 14
ip'yftn 33, 35, 117
Ashtf'vil/tf 80
Asia (ft'shl-a) 9^ 17, 135-
143
As-flSn-I-boi'a 94
As-to'rl-a 90
A-snn-^i-on' 109
At-b&'T& 145
Atch-^-fi-loy'A 82
Ath-^bfts'ca 92
Ath'fos 132
At-l&D'ta 80
Atl&n'tic 9, 27
Atlantic plain 49, 50
At'lfts 145
at-mos-phSr'ic agents 12
A.t5ir 22
Au'bam 64
Auck'lgud 153
Au-gtis'ta, Ga. 80 ; Me. 64
Aus^tin 83
Aus-tra'U-a 9, 10, 17, 150-
152, 21, 34, 91, 95
Australian life region 29,
30. 151
Aus'til-a-Hun'gft-ry 126,
119, 120, 132
au'tumn 2^
Auvergne (o-vftrft') 128
ax'is 6, 23
4-z5res' 130
Az'tecs 98
B&b dl M&nMSb 145
Bad Lands 52
B&g-dftd' 137
B^-iia'mas 99, 100
BiUM'ft 109
Bai'k&l 115
B&-k^' 133, 136, 137
B&H^r'io 129
BftUkftu' 132
B&l-kftsh' 115
B&l-la-r&t' 152
Bal'tio 113
Bal'ti-mor« 71
Bi-lu-chls-tftn' 188
B&oe'a 142
Bftn'dft Sea 142
B&nff-k5k' 140
Ban^g6r 64
Bang-w$.o'15 146
Ban^trj^ Bay 122
Bft-rft'n5f 91
Bar'ba-dos 100
bar-ba'ri-ans 35, 36
Bar'ba-ry SUtes 147
Bar-Ofi-ld'nft 130
Bar-frt|sh' 138
Bar-r&i-quina (-Kdl'yft)
111
Bftr'r€64
b&r'ri-er beaoh 21
Bft'sQl 128
b&'sin 15
B«-ta'vI-a 142
Bftth64
B&t'6n Bonge (r^zb) 83
B&-tum' 137
bay 1*0
Bay City 75
Bfi-ydniw' 71
hayou 19
B«d'oi^-in§ 137
bed rock 13
beets 38, 120, 124
Bei'r^t 137
Bel-f&st' 124
Ber6l-«m, Ber j^-ans 128,
Bel-grfidtf' 182
Bgl.Ize'99
Ben-ft'r^ 139
Ben-gal', Bay 113
Ben-In% Bight 145
Ber'ber; 33, 146, 147
B&r'^<gn 126
Bd'nng 45
Berk'shjire Hills 63
Ber'lin 125
Ber-mu'da 44
B&ml28
bey 148
B'hu-tftn' 189
Bl-ftf' ra, Bight 145
Bid'dd-ford 64
Big Stoia 76
m-bli'd 128
BU-ltt«n' 142
Bin-u-e' 145
Bir'ming-ham (-tbn) Ala.
81; Enff. 124
Bis'cay, Bay 113
Bis'krtt 148
Bis'marck 77
Black Hills 77
Blo^m-f5n'U?in 149
Blue Grass region 74
Blue Ridge 50, 68
bluff 51
Boers 149
bog 22
Bo-go-tft' 111
Bohmerwald (bd'mer-
y<) 124
Boi'se 86
B5KA-"a'ptt 137, 136
Bo-lIv'I-a 110, 108, 103
B5m-bay' 139
Boo'thl-a 93
B5r-deaux' (-do') 129
bore 21
B6r'ne-6 142
Bd§'nl-ft 131
Bds'pho-riis 132
Bds'ton 64, 65, 63
B«th'nl-a, Gulf 113
bottom land 19
bowl'der 20
Brft^'man-ism 36, 136
Brft^ma-pvf tra 138
branch Id '
Brat'flc-bo-ro (-biir-ro) 64
Br^rfl', Br^-zu'ian (-yftn)
i08, 109, 103, 105, 130
Brft'zos 51
BrSm'fin 124, 125
Brds'lau (-lou) 125
Bridge'port 65
Brlpb&n^ 152
Bris'tol Channel 122
Brit'ish: see Great Britain
Brit'ish Co-liim'bl-a 95
Brock'ton 65
Brooklyn 69
Briis's£l§ 128
Ba'da-pest 126
Bud'dM§ni 36, 136
Buenos Aires (bd'niis
&'riz) 109
Biif 'fa-lo 69
Bu-kAa-rest' 132
Byl-ga'rl-a 132, 120
Bun'dfis-rfttA 124
Bur'ling-ton, la. 76: Vt
64
Bnr'mft, Bur-mdstf' 140
bosh 151
B^-shlre' 138
Butte 86
C&'b^s, Gulf 145
Cab'i-net 55
Coi'ro 147
C&l-ctit'ta 139
CU-Y-f dr'nla 90, 91, 12, 20,
37, 41, 53, 89
Cftl-k'o 110
c&fms26
Cam-bo'di-a (-dg-) 140
Cam'brl-an Mts. 122
Cam'brld^tf 65
Cam 'den 71
cam'fils 31, 38, 116, 137,
138, 139, 141, 147, 148,
149
cftm'pds 105
C&n'a-da 92-95, 47, 49, 63,
68
Cft-nft'di-an (-dfi-) B. 87
cA-n&l§' 42, 60, 68, 69, 75,
121, 140, 147
Cft-na'ry Is. 129
Can'^er 24
C&n-ta'bil-an Mts. 129
Can-tdn' 141
|oftn'y6n 17
eape IjL, 21
Cape A-gul'has (-yfts) 145
Cape Bilt'on 94
Cape C&-n&y'er4U 81
Cape Cod 50
Cape Col'o-ny 149
Cape Goar-da-fui' (.fw^O
145
Cape Hat'ter-as 80
Cape Men-d6-cl'n5 88
Cape Pft-r!-nft^ 103
Cape Bo-m&'no 81
Cape St. Boque (r5k) 103
Cape Town 149
Cape VSrde Is. 130
cap'i-tal 42
Cap'rI-com 24
Cft-rtt'ctts 111
Car'diflf 124
C&r-Ib-bS'an 9
Car-p&'thl-an 114, 126
Car-pen-t&'ri-a (-rfi-)151
Car'son City 87
cas-cade' 18
Cascade Mts. 53, 89
Cfts'pl-an 17, 114, 115, 119
cA8tel38
cat'a-ract 18
Cats'kill Mts. 68
cattle 38, 58, 67, 79, 85, 89,
97, 98, 107, 108, 116, 120,
136, 137, 138, 148, 149,
152, 153
Cau'cH (kon'-) 110
Cau-o&'sian (-shftn) 33
Cau'ca-sils 114, 119
cave 15
C&-y6nn«' (or ki-«n') 111
Ca-yi}'ga L. 68
Odl>l%B 142
Celts m
Central A-mSrl-ca 99, 47,
49
Central Lowland 46, 51
CetlDJe (cha-ten'y&) 132
C9-vdnne9' 128
Cej^-15n' 139
Gham-plain', L. 64
Chan'nel Is. 122
Chftrltfs'ton, S. C. 80 ; W.
Va. 72
ar'lotte 80
ar'lotte-town 94
at-ta-hoo'chee 80
Chat-ta-noo'ga 82
Chfttf-tau'qua 68
ChSl'sda 62
Ch6-mul'pho 141
Chfir-o-kees' 83
Chds'a-pdoke 50, 68, 71
Chi^sun'cook L. 63
Cheviot (chly's-iit) HiUs
122
e^^nne' 86
i-ea'go (shfij 74, 43
ick'a-saws 83
Chl'l§ 109. 108
Chilian (ohdl-yftn') 109
Chim-bd-rft'zo 110
Chi'na, Chi-nese' 140, 141,
83, 67, 89, 91, 100, 111,
117, 136, 139, 142, 152,
153 ' ' ' »
Chip'pft-wa 75
ChocMAWs 83
Chris-tt-rnl-a 126
Chris-tian'i-ty (kris-
ch&n'.) 36, 94, 98, 108,
119, 120, 136, 147, 149
Chi}-but' R. 109
Church'ill B. 93
gin-^in-na'tl 73
cir-cum'fer-ence 5
city 42, 43, 59, 121
civ-I-U-za'tion 35, 37, 117.
119, 135
Cl^ve'lgnd 73
or mate 24, 28-88
cloud 14
a^dtf B. 122
ooal 22, 40, 59, 93, 109,
121, 136, 13^142, 152,
153
coast 10, 11, 21
Coast Ranges 53, 89
C5-ch&.b&m'b& 110
Co'chin Chi'na 140
cdf'fee 31, 38. 98, 99, 100,
108, 137, 139, 142, 148,
149
Cd-ld^6' 125
Co-ldm'bl-ft IIQ, 111, 108
Co-lom'bd 139
C51-o.ra'd6 86, 87, 13; R.
17, 46, 52, 87
Colorado Springs 87
Co-ltLm'bl-a 80: plat. 52;
B. 46, 89, 90
Co-liini^biis, Ga. 80 ; O. 73
com'merce 41, 42, 60, 63,
68, 79, 89, 95, 98, 108,
121, 123, 135, iaii, 139,
140, 142
c6m'pftss6
Con-cep'cion (-shun) 109
Cdo€'6rd 64
Con'gress 55, 72
Con-ndct'I-cut 65
Con-st&n-ti-nd'pl0 132
con'sul 42
con'tif-ngnt 9
con-tl-nen'tal divide 17;
island 9, 32 ; plateau 9 ;
sea9
con-to«r' 45
Coo'sa R. 80
Cd-pfin-hft'^en 125
cop^per 15, 59, 85, 93, 98,
M, 121, 140, 141, 142,
152
C5pU 147
cdr'ftl 21, 22, 89, 81, 99,
120, 147
C5r'dd.va 109
com 30, 35, 37, 58, 67, 77,
79, 108, 120, 137, 138,
147, 148
Cdr'sl-ca 128
Cds'tii RI'cH 99
C6-t6-p&x'1 110
cot'ton 38, 58, 78, 81, 82,
108, 137, 138, 139, 141,
147, 148, 149
Coun'cil Bluffs 77
C6v'ing.ton 74
cra'ter 12
Creeks 83
Crettf 132
or§-vAsM' 51
Cu'ba 99, 100. 49
Cnm'ber-lana 71; plat.
81,82
out'-off 19
€«y-A-b5'ga R. 73
Cnzco (c)is'c5) 110
o^'clone 26, 27, 54, 114
gy'prfls 113
czarld3
D&l'2fts 83
Dft-m&s'ciis 137
Dau'ish: see Denmark
Dan'ubtf 126
Dar-da-nfil/es' 132
Dar'ling R. 151
Dftv'fin-pdrt 76
Daw'son City 95, 91
day 6, 23
Day'ton 73
DSad'wood 77
de-gree' 7
Dek'kan 114, 138, 139
DSl-a-go'a Bay 149
D61'a-w&rc 71; Bay 50,
68; R. 50, 68. 70
Delhi (dSl'le) 139
del'talfi^ia
Den 'mark 125, 95, 97, 100,
119, 120
Den'ver86
de-pres'sion 9
dds^ert 29
De« Moines' 76
de-tri'tus 13
Dfi-troit' 75
dew 14
di-am'e-ter 5
dike 125
Di-n&r'ic (dg.) Alps 119
District of Columbia 71, 72
divide' 17
DniS'per 114
Don 114
Don-$-gal' Bay 122
\>tT^bg\ie' 128
Dott'rd 129
Dd'ver, Del. 71; N. H.
64
D6-vre-Aeld' (-fyfld') 125
Dre^'dgn 125
drift 20
drum'lin 20
Dub'lin 124
Du-buque' (-bfik') 76
Du-lntt' 76
Dfl'nft 119
dune 13
Diln-Sd'in 153
Diir'ham (-iim) 80
Dfitch 69, 149 ; see Nether-
lands
earth 'quake 12, 53, 97, 99,
103, 114, 141, 145
east 6
East Central States, 72
Eastern Continent, 9-11
East In'di^s 9, 10, 142
East O'ma-ha 77
E'bro 129 **
e-clipstf' 5
Ec-ua-dor' 110, 108
Ed'Xn-burgh (-biir-ro) 124
E'gypt 147
El^^ 130
Elbe 124
El-b^rz' 114
el'e-phants 31, 38, 116,
139, 148
el-e-va'tion 9, 45
El'lrin 74
El Pft'sd 61
En'glftnd (fa'-). Eng'lish
122-124, 47, 49, 107, 119.
138: see Great Britain
e-qu&^tor 7
e-qua-to'ri-al calms 26, 27
e'qul-nox 23
E'rien
Erie Canal 68, 69
e-ro'sion (-zhilu) 12-22
e-rup'tion 12
Erz'tfi-blr-^ (6rts'-) 124
Es'ld-mds ^ 91, 94, 97
Es'sgn 1&
es'tu-&-ry 10
Et'na, Mt. 130
£ii-phr&'t€§ 114
j:^-ra'sia (-shi-a) 9, 17,
112-143
£^-ra'sian (-shi-an) high-
land 113
Eurasian life region 29l
31, 32, 115, 116
J?u'r6pe 9, 17, 117-133
Ev'ang-viHe 73
e-vap-o-ra'tion 13
Ev'er-€st, Mt. 113
Ev'er-glades 81
Fa/k'lgnd 106
Fall line 49
Fall River 65
Far'go 77
Fa'roe Is. 126
fault 11
fer'tl-ll-sex8 87
160
"TpHiS^jii
m
pi
MRfl'
t/
^
^^mm
_^-«
pflTi'i^
MI^Hb^MH
TT3 ' \.
^^^■ftfll
i i A
^^^^^Ih
,/ .^^-i.
^HBM
tmmh
^^■nt?]
m\m\
^^^^^^ F ■(!
ilUlli 1
^^^^H&k^
^,.1^11
■Htirif ■ m
are each 10,000 feet or more in height Mount ^Vhitney, the liigbeet,
hati nil altitude of 14,.V22 fei-t. Other greiit elevations are MouiitH
TjTidall {14,:im fi*I). Brewer (13,880 fwt), Lycll {V.iMZ feet), Dana
(12,0!l2feet),an<lt.'a«tlel'eak(lli,r)00ti-et). Mount Shasta, h niajriufi-
cent SHoM-H-hid v<ilcanit' onue in the iiortheni [Mirt of tlie state, is
nii>re titan I4.0(l() feet liit;h. LoiwnM Peak (almut 10,4(10 feet) is
Kcconil in inipcirluuee li> Mount Khasta aiuoii)' tlu- extin<-t voleu-
iKH's of nortlieni tlaliffiniia. Both of lliew [leaks, though often
sptiken of as helon(ri'ig t<i the KieiTa Nevada, an- luoiv elonely asftoci-
aled (fiiilofnoully with the Oiuscade Mountains whicli ^ireti-h north-
wanl fi'oni iheni throuffh Orepm an<l Washington. Siity-Bvc
frljK'ii-i-s fi-cHii half a mile til two miles in leufftli exist in Cahfomia.
most of ilii'm on the north sides of the hi|.'hest niountinns; and there
are many Indications tliat these (;hu-iei's wi'iv much more extensive
at some time in the (last.
, lirojul, lifokeii liolt
Till' tV»iist I{jiiijy;i's exteiul :
aloiiir tln' wt'stcni i>i<ly of the stati*. Tlit'V iiiclu<le
iniiiiy riiijjt's, i;i'iH'nilly fianillel with the shore, ami have
nimuMdiis loiif^ spurs on the west. The tottil widtli of
tile 1 'oust ItiiiifU'K is almost equal to tliat of tlie SloiTa,
Imt their iivera-rt! height is not lialf so jtreat. At the
OoIiU'ii (liite the mountains are broken down, making
u jj;ran<l onth't to the ocean.
To the e.-tst of S;in FnuK-isco and <if the liills of Contra Costa
stiiiids .Mount Dialdo (:(84!l feet), which is the most pnmiinent eh-va-
lion of the <'<mst Han^^'s in this jMirl of the stati'. Mount tit. Helena
(alioiit 4:i.'nl f.-cl). risinff al llic hea.l of the lovely Napa valley, is
also very coiisincuous. and is a lieautiful h('i|;ht.
In soutltern Calit'ornia the Coast Kanges merge into
a eoiifnsed mass of numiitains and lidls extending
lieymid the Mexican boniidary. They are liigliest
i-ast of Los AngeU's, and are there called tlie San Uer-
naiiliiio Hiinge, Xortii of Los Angeles they are known
as the Hierra Madre; and farther west, where they
merge with the Coast Ranges, tliey are called the
mountains of San Bneua Ventura. The hiftiest peak
is Mount San ISerinirdino (ll,(JOO feet).
Valleys. Where is thi- (n-eal eentnd valley of (.'alifomin f ^Vlial
is the (leneral cliarai-ter of its Mloi>ef By wliat two (jreat rivers is it
drained ; What luis aln-ady l)een said of some parts of the Mohaxi'
Desert (
The great <'entral valley is ahont 400 miles long and
from 20 to 50 miles wide. The area of the entire basin
is eompiited to bo aliout (jr>,00fl square miles, of which
nearly :iO,Ol)0 scinare miles is comparatively level. The
western parts are h)wer than the eastern, while of
course all parts slope -toward the two main rivers by
which the valley is drained.
In the heart of the Sierra, about I'tO miles east of
San Franeisco, is the famous Yoseniite Valley. This
chasm is six miles in length and from half a mile to
a mile wide, its almost vertical granite walls rise from
;i(«)0 to 5IH)i> feet. From the toi> of these <'liffs the
Meived Kiver and its tributaries fall in grand cata-
niets from 400 to KiOO feet in height.
Conjm-ss in lUfU j.'mnted this vaUcy to Cahfoniia for a pulilic
park. an.l in IStll the United States pivn-nnicnt eslahlishcd the
Vosemite National I'ark. which includes 42 townslii|is. It einhraees
the slate park ami the dminagc Imsin alioiit it, iiresi-rvinj; the for-
est and water courses. It hieludes also the Hetch EI<!teliy Valley,
CALIFORNIA.
Kiir
! (itliiT hikes
whiuh rcscmhlcs the Yosfinitc, JiltliDii^rh not i'i|iiul in it in frruiuli'ur.
The liipliest iHiiiit ill the Nali..iuil I'urk i^ Mount Lyell.
Southward froiu Yosoiiiitc Park are l\n' <.J(^iici-al (iraiit
ami til*' Soquola Natiotml jmrks in tlii" {jniiid Svii<ioiii
f/itfaiitrti forests; ami iiortlii-ast of tliese forest [lark.i, on
tlio middle and south forks of Kiiijrw liivcr, ant two inajjiii-
fii;eiit <-iinyon valleys like the Yoseniite and lit'l.-li Ilcfoliy.
Bctwfoit the western simrs of tlie t'twist Kan^jes, and
ruuninf; northwest, there are many viver valleys wliieh
drain into the i'aeifle. Home of tliese are extensive an<l
veiy fertile. The Salinas iiiver valley is one of the lar-
gest. The valleys of the Santa Ana, Snnta Clara, Najia,
Sonoma, liiissian, and Eel nvers are also hnportant and
interesting.
A strip along the southwest coast, including the western
parts of Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, and San
Diego eonnties, has lieen called the Garden of California.
East of this there are fertile valleys, — San Bernardino,
Kiverside, and others, — wliieli are tliiekly settled.
East antl southeast of the Sierra tliere lies an arid I'egion
covering nearly one fourth of the state. It lielongs mainly
to the Great Basin, and is one of the driest and most bar-
ren parts of the earth's snrface. It inelndestiie sandy and
rocky Mohave De.sert, stretching between the Siena
the Colorado lliver, and also comprises a part of the ( 'olu-
rado Desert. This region has but few inhabitants.
Other Regions. In tlie northeiisteni |iai-t nf |h., stnti' tliei-e is a r.K-ky
plateau, hifxh, tileak. atul slt'rile, biiikeii l>.v short iiiimiitinii i-nii(ri-s, unil
traversi'il liy the Pitt Kiver wilh its (lf<-|» {jura's. It is the Ijikf repioii of
Califtmiiii. niid a [mrt c,f it lies in the (ireat Hiisiii. In this fuf,'t{''<l Uistrivt
thi'H! iii-e iiimiy Iwds of liivu mid vi-U-iinie Hshes.
AIhivi^ the gTi'nt central viillcy. tmrth of the paniUel i>f 4IP anil west of
Mimnt Sluistii, in arougli, eoiii|)lic-iileii iiioiintniii vegiuii inrlwdinfr the high
anil m|;tfetl plateau oE thu Klaniatli.
Drainage. Which is the larf.-est river in thi.' stiitef In what diri'diou
does it flow? Wliat i-iver HiiwinfT in the (ipiic)site din-etiou joins it. and
where do Itiey unite? What ^n-eiit i-.'pon do they loj-i'thiT drain r
What hay .lo they enter? Thrmifrli what other liodies of water do they
n-adi the I'acitie' What riv.Ts ent.^r the I'a.'iti.- north of San Fnin.'is<'o;
south of that eity .' What river forms part of the honndarj- of the slate*
Ex<'ept the Haeraiiiento and the San Joaquin, the livers
of (!alifoniia are small, and their importauee lies in tlieir
service to agriculture, mining, and manufactures. The
Sacramento is about +IH) miles long. Tt rises in the elevated
region near .Mount Shasta, and soon unites with Pitt Hivcr,
which is iii<)perly regarded as the ujiper course of the same
stream. It is navigable for light steamers for mori? than
2.'>0 miles from its mouth. Many of its tribntanes, of which
the Feather, Yuba, and American rivers are the eljief. flow
throiigli deeji mountain goi'ges.
ihvinsr io ilie .-onsid.'ral.li' rainfall on the western slo|>es ..f tile Sierra,
.'ind to ili<'tii<-lliin;Miowon the hijrli in»unlains. many of the streams t)ow-
iiit: then.'.' . an-y a lar<re volume of water even in the .I17- s,-Hson. This is
not ihe .■»>.■, Ii..wever, witli the streams fnmi the eastern. sloiM-si.f the t 'oast
|{ani.'es. Ill ilie di'v M'asim most of these sink and <1isap|»iir siHin after
leaviti^^ the I'.H.tliills. Mr.sl of t!ie ]>ennaiielit water eoursi's on this sidt;
of the jm^at I'.'ntral valley rise nonh of Cleur Ijike in I^ake t-ouuty.
The hi'ad waters of the San Joaquin take their rise at
tile foot (if a glacier near tlie summit of Mount Lyell, The
soiitli tork of tliis river rises near Mount Goddanl. The
San .loaquin is about .'{.'ill miles long, flows southwest for
10(1 miles, then northwest, an.l finally joins the Saeram.-iito
n(>t far east of Siiisiin Bay. It is navigalile fur sleaiiu-rs
to Sfiicktun, Kor a considevable distance from Suisiui
Bay the Hacramento and San Joaquin rivers are Lor-
(lercd by tnlc swamps. The principal ti'iliutavies of the
San Joa(|iiin are the Merced, Tuolumne, Fresno, Stanis-
laus, Calaveras, and ^lokcliimiie rivi^rs, all rising in the
Sierra. The San .loacinin lias no westei'ii tributaries.
The south and main fork of the Tuolumne, rising in a
gla<Mer on the north side of Mount Lyell. flows through
the Big Canyon, whi<-h is noted for its grand scenery.
Of tiie rivers flowintr chn-etly to the I'aeitic the Inrp-sl is llip Klanisth.
wliieh rises in Orepm. FVimi what lake d<H's it i-^-tie to enter ('ahfi>niiaf
Other iniportaiil eoast rivers un: the Kel, Rnssiiii,' and Salinas. Kxeept
the last, t\u- streams fn»n the t^iKist Katifn-s simlh iif S;m Fraiieiseo usiudly
sink ill the dry season. Howinfi slowly ihrcnifrh {Travel and sanil lo the
The I'olorailo. thoiiph foniiinj; a pari of 1
I )>ouiidary of
(CALIFORNIA.
Wheat Harve;
atiire varies much in diffevoiit pjirts of tlit' s;tatt', (ii'iioml-
iiig Inrgely upon distance t'l'oiii tlio occiiii, tin' iiiflucuct' of
moUIltaiIls^, aud elevidioii aliovo the si'a, Kflativcly, in
sumtiiw, the woatlier is cool on tlie coast and hot in lln'
interior valleys. Tlie sea causes comparative tiuitorniity
between the north and tlio south, but front cast to west the
changes arc very rapid. Within a few miles of tlie ocean
the climate is one of the most equable in the world.
In genKnil there arc twoBpasons— Hii- ilri-. t'rimi Miiy In Novciulicr, ami
the rainy, friiin NovemlxT to May, Siiinv s<>UIiiui falls in niiy hul liic
moiintniii rt'gioiis, ahhuugh the lonp. scvfre rjiinslonns from tlii' ^(l^t^l-
west are »oinetimes followed liy (■<)1(1 n-;ives, or i-vcii liy slmqi nciirl»-rs.
The average yearly rainfall decreases iniite refriilarly ficini m-nrW 80
inches in the e.\treme northwest to about 4 ini-lics in tlii' sonlKcast coniiT.
At San Diefjo it is about 10 inches, and at San Fruneisco li'i inrlu's. For
the entire state it is about 20 inehes— not more Ihan half tlial
Atlantic coast
"Where the heaviest rainfall occurs, north of t
dociiio, the prevailing winds are from the i
Below that point, in all but the winter months,
winds prevail. These come from the Pacilic, w
have been cooled by the Alaska current.
'ape .\l
lorthw
'sterlv
■■■ they
In the ( ireat Basin region east of the
Sierra in the Mohave Desert the climate is
very severe ; the summer heat is killing,
the winter is bitterly cold.
Fogs are frequent along the coast in Ixith summer
and winter. In winter they often extend far inland,
iniidifyinif the temperature by cheekiufr the radiation of
lieat. Tn the ilry season they afford grateful moistura
to vegetation.
RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES.
Vegetation. There are more than KH)
species of forest trees in California, tlie most
important of which are conifers. (Jreat for-
ests cover the Coast Ranges and the western
slopes of the Sierra, wliere the rainfall is
heavy. They extend from the northern
bounihiry to about latitude 36° J,iQ'.
. Ihi' main forest Ijelt reaches from about 4000 to !tO(W
Farther ujv, to a heiftht of from 10.1100 to rj,00t)
. are found jiiiiipei's. Iieml(H.'k, and alpine spei'ies of pines. On the
liilU and in the e<Mist valleys there are sparse (rrowths of oaks, pines.
\ai-ions kinds of umlerwoods. On the eastern slope of the Sierra
!■ are rijjrn )n"oves of larf,t' yellow pine, wilver fir. nut pine, and many
i-lie^ ol* slirnlis. The great eciitral valley, though mostly treeless, liaii
1' of the nolilesi jmrklike expanses of (mk wi»ids to Ih' fouml in the
, world. The s.mtheasteni portion of the slate is alm.pil deslitule of trees.
Cidifoniin is ri-'h in llowers of many speeies. The California I.uekeye,
various .-.[..-.■ies of fmunilu,^. and nianzanita are widely distributed. These;
with lliorny shrubs and scrvib oaks form dense thickets calliKl chaparral.
The most leniarkable forest growths are the two species
i)f Sri/ii'ii<i, the giant sequoia {Sequoia f/if/antfa) or "big
tree" of tlie Sierra and the towering redwood {Sr(jiini,i snu-
/irnirriin) of the Coast Kaiiges. No other species of Si--
I //luiiii is known to exist on the globe. The giant sequoia,
; tliongli es<'eeded in height by an Australian encalyi)tii.«, is
I the grandest tree that gi'ows. It is distributed in groves
and forests along the western flank of the Sierra, from the
middle fork of the Amerieaii River to the head of Deer
In
th
blowing t m 1
year the hnmte
anealyu f t
ert repon u
Septen btr an 1
cjelo w d nil
1
ha tl
11 Tl
1
nod H lb
valle
n I o the foo hili-w
1
The ocean winds enter the great central valley through
the San Fran<'isco water gap— the (lulden (iate. Among
the foothills in this region the summer is quite warm, the
temperature ranging from H^)° to ii'}°, and even to 100° or
more; but the severity of the heat is much lessened by the
dryness of the air and the coolness of the iiisrhts. The
rainy season here, though sotnetimes chilly, usually has
many agreeable (jualities. In the high Sierra the winters
are long and cold, but the summer middays are often as
warm there as they are on the coast.
the Sierra ll
CALIKOUNIA.
Urain'-jrrowiiifr Is an iiniuKti-y of ;~
tlu> first inii>ortuiici.'. Tln' vine
flourishfx in nearly all parts of tlic
interior below an elevation of 4IIIHI
feet. The annual wine [iroilnet is
fi-om l;'),()0(),OnO to 20,000,(10(1 frallons,
two lliinls of wliicli is ox])ort('il. In
the hot, dry interior liasins fji'ent
quantities of f^rapcs are nunle inio
raisins, of wliicli several million boxes
are exported jinnutilly. Jlore tiian
half the raisins eonsunieii in ttuv
country are supplied by Culifuriiia.
Plums, i)eaehes, jiears, npples, elier-
ries, prunes, apricots, nectarines, (ifrs,
and olives thrive in most jiarts of the state, Oraiifr.'s,
lemons, limes, and walnuts, alnion'ls, and ulhi'r nuts
grow in southern California and in the \alleys of the
Sacnnni'nto and San Joaquin. Strawberries, r;is]pbi'rries.
blaekberries, eurrants, and other sniiili fruits are i^rowTi
amU'anned in largiTpiantifies. St ra win Tries are marketed
in every month exceiit January and FeUniary. In sr\cral
Raisin Vineyard.
Gathering Grapes.
southern counties bee culture is carried on, a
honey is exported.
Su(!ce»sful iiirrieiilliiif in ninnv [wirts of tln' stiiti' ilt-in-ntls mi
lTijr;iti<
The pnictico iif ii-rifjuliciii really Iji'pm in <';ilifiiniifi lii'tori' tlic
in.'tci-n
Wiitun-, tint iiltliouuli si'vt'nil iiiillioii iu-ri-> iin- now irri;.'iiti-ii, il
■< Vft HI
looul. Ill iitlililUin lo tlit^ iiumiitaiii sti-iMins iirk-slitii wulls an-
I v;,lmil
aiil in irripitioii. Of tlu'sc IIhtc aiv thonsanils in Cnlifnniia.
Soiu.'
thu Santa Ana Kivir iMtsin, tin- Kan -Joa-iuin vitllcv. iind
■Im-mIh'
have a How of ovci- 1.(1011,(100 pillons a (by. ImfnilU.n isal«)
assist... I
muiiy jilai'es by wiiulniills and stcaiii jiunips for raisiiifr wali-r I'rcnn wi'lls.
Mineral Productions. Of all the resonr<-os of Cali-
fornia none are more extraordinary than her mineral treas-
ures. Chief amonj,' these are the immense jrold deposits,
from which vast wealth Inis been derived, and which ai'e
still anH)ng the riclu'st in the world.
lim-s
ilisi'ovcrj- "f gold, niiiiinK "w '!'»' IcatliiiB
lii'n it iH'fiimi- second to affrieultiire. Gold
■L-iiii lioundiiry to tlie (.'olotado bi-sert, I>ul by
(■ jiiilcl-niininfT lias lM>i-n done in the nortlieni
tnd ainiiiitf the Shasta »nd Siskiyou niouutiiins
"■rrl ri-srioiis, es]H'i'iiilly in tht faiuoiLs Hand
havi- hei'ii extensively opened up.
I 'alifni-iiia ill 1S!I7 was valued at aUnit *ir..O(lil.-
111 (iliefoilrlh ol the total produet of the I'liiled
iTiia is esliniated to have prtHluecil in frold more
erts d<H-laro that there is «ti]l more r*'!*! in the
^ l«.en taken ..ut.
ijuai-t/ mines liy c-rushiiiff the fiold-l>eariiiji
ivi-i banks l.y wrisliin); away the iwth. Many
p>ld-inining. and Califoniin luts Home of the
Silver is found in miiny places in California. There are
mines of tliisnietal in the soiiiliern jiarf ami on the eastern
slope of the Sierra. (Quicksilver is a valuable product, of
wbieli California snp]j[ies neai'ly all that is obtaineil in
our contitry. It occurs in the Coast Ranges from Los
Amreles ei.uiity to Trinily,
Copper ore is found in Fresno, Calaveras, Nevada, Shasta,
and <itlier (■onntii>s. The Shasta belt is especially in)iK)r-
tant. Hituniinous coal and lignite are mined in the Coast
Kan-jes and in the ^'reat ccnti-al valley.
Library, Doiversity of California.
betweeu the lawless and the law-abiding in the new eoni-
mmiity, resulting in the complete establishment of social
order. TIk' siiliseqiient growth of the state was nor-
mal and steady. Her earfer of prosiwrity has followed
from the supplementing of niineral industries by the de-
veloi)mi'nt of her vasst agricultural and man ufat'tu ring
re.s(uirees, and from her liberal provision for public edu-
eation mid adviineenient.
During tin- i-ivil war ("idifornia remained faithful to the
rnioii. and wilh men and treasure genenmsly maintained
its cjiusp,
'Hie populiitioii of the state increased from 92,597 in
1S:)U to :!79,9f4 in IHIiO. In IftflO it was 1,-J0H,130. It is
now estimated at l,(i()(M)0().
Government. Tin- h-^ri^bnivi- ili-iiartnu'ot c<mHisI« of a senati? and nn
.-i SSI 'III lily. Sciiiiliirsdit'i'k'i'ii'il fur fiiur yean*, and memlwr* of lheasii«R)-
lily flirt Mil yi'ars. Tin- m'ssidhm of the Itfriwlatun' are biennial.
T)i(' I'xii'ntivv lU'partiiii'tit iiii-lwleN « povenior, lieutenant-governor,
sei'n-tai-y iif siale, ciHilnilli'i'. treasurer, attomey-fteneral, siirveyor-prentTal,
ami suiH'rinti'iiilenl uf imlilic instruction, all elected for four ytmn*.
Tile juilii-idl (leparliiicnt eoniiirises tlie M-iiate sittinf; as a court of im-
IieaeliMieiit. u sujivviue court, .sui>eriiir courts, justices (if the peace, and
audi iiiferiiir i-uiirls as the legislaturi! niay estaliliMh.
('aliForiiia is dividf^d into ."i" counties. The state has 2 senators and 7
representalives in (.'imjfress, and W voles in ilie eleetiiral coilejri'.
Education. The eonstitution provides thiit a free school
shall be kejit up and supjwrted in every district of the
Tlie state possesses a larffe school funi], and also raises annually by
taxation for support of the public schools aliout $."(,000,000. Each county
has a boanl of education and a Nujierintendent, and in everj' school district
tlien- is a board of trustees. IIi(;h si'hools are maintained in the cities
and larger towns throughout the slate.
The University of (,'alifornia at Berkeley is free to young
men and women. It is largely endowed, and is one of the
best equipped and most progressive institutions in the
country, it has received a large bequest for the erection
of new buildings on its extensive grounds overlooking the
Golden Gate.
coast from that point to San Francisco. About these niis-
sions they gatliered the Indians, and taught and employed
them.
Spanish donnnion lasted until 1821. In that year Mex-
ico declared her independence of Spain, and in 1824 Cali-
fornia became a territory of the republic of Jlexico.
The Mexican rule continued till 1846, when, mainly o^..,. ^^ «v,., i.,. ...<.. (-1.^,^.^. n^^, .., v...
through the action of American settlers, the iudci)enilence | state for iit least six months of the year
of California was asserted and, with United States military
aid, maintained, the authority of our government being
e8tablishe<l here in 1847. Meanwhile the Mexican war was
in progress. It was ended February 2, 1848, by tlie treaty
of Guadalupe Hidalgo, whereby California, with other
territory, was formally ceded to the United States. Just
before the conclusion of this treaty the great discovery of
gold was made, from which dates the rapid growth of Cali-
fornia and its development into aleading state of the Union.
Reports of gold in California liad come from Drake and others before
the seventeenth century, and the Alezieans had probably foimd gold here.
But in January, 1848, came the dist-overj' that aroused
the world, when James Wilson Marsliall (from Now Jer-
sey) found gold grains in the tailrace of John A. Sutter's
mill, in what is now the township of Colonia, Eldorado
county. Soi>n the gold-bearing nature of ihe region was
widely known, and the precious area rapidly enlarged
under the search of an ever-increasing numlwr of pros-
pectors. The excitement spread throughout the world,
and was followed by a rush of gold seekers, who Imve
been termed "Argonauts." Within a few months there
were tens of thousands of them in California. They
came overland and by water, some crossing the Isthmus
of Panama, and others sailing round Cape Horn.
Many of them fell by the way from hardship, disease,
and Indian assault, but still the viwt army inereaseiL
The great harbor of San Franeiseo waw iiuiekly crowded
with the shijis of different nations, and a strange city of
tents and sheds sprang up. This was to be rapidly re-
placed by the noble metropolis at the Uolden Gate.
California was admitted to the Union as a
state September 9, 18,^0. During the next
few years there was a struggle for supremacy Encina Hall, LtUaA Stanford junior nnireroity.
12
OALIFOKNIA.
which is located here, Ban Jose hiis
several educational institutions (but
maintain a hi^h standing.
San Ikegu. the county seat of San
Dieiro county, has one of the l>pst
harbors, after that of San Fmnciwco,
on the Pacific, coast. On account of
its equable climate, it is a favorite
Kiimnier and winter resort. It car-
ries on an active trade with I>iwer
California, and exports much fruit
and honey.
Stocklim. the county seat of Saw
Joaquin county, on the Stockton
naviptlite chiiniie!, which ci>inic»-ts
the city with the San Jraiijuin River,
carries on nn extensive Hn<i active
trade with the surrounding ctmiitry
in wheat, wool, an<l other ap-icul-
tnral pnKlucts. Here are hiiportani
and varied inainifai-tnrcs including;
agricultural inijilemeiits, floui-. cai--
riages, and many otliei- article's. The s>-ho<i!s of S
and the city Ims a fine piihlie iiliiiirj'.
Alantttl<i, contiguous to Oakland cm the Miuth. is.
attractive place of residence for (ii-oph' doin^ 'msini'
J-'rexno, the county seat of t're.ino county, is tlic li'iidc i-eiit<
vine- and fruit-griiwhig region, nuide fertile hy irrigntioiL m
the productiim of raisins.
Bfrkrlri/, adjoining Oakland on tlie nortlu is not only the
University of Ualifomia, but als.. of the Slate r)i-al*. i»iiiiil;
Asylum. It has various iimnufactures.
Piismlfii'i, in I^is Angek's i-ounly. is ii favorite lieiilth resoi-t and ii-s-
idenee city, beautifully situatetl on liigli. well-draiiiiil nicsa land, nine
miles north of Los Angeh's. It is the center of a gival fruil district.
AV(h/« Ann, Ihe eounty seat of Oi-ange county, is a fimirishiiig i-ity in n
rich agricidtural and horticnltuml regimi. It lias ainjile traiisjiortati<m
facilities, a large trade, and «)me nianufaetnn-s.
Sanlii Bnr}tnr», the county sent of Santa lijirlmra ei)unly, is <m the sea-
FXHist, in a beautiful region of fruits and flowers, n\n\ is a noleil health
resort with a delightful elinmte.
San I!crnartiiiia, the county s«!at iif San Bemardiiio county, is sur-
rounded by vineyards and orange groves. It has many artesian wells.
Biikfrnjirlrl, Kem county, railroad nimdiiiu' sliujis iiml other inanufai--
tories; <-euter of fniit and agiicnltural regi'iii. JIaiiiiii. Solniio county,
tnnnerti's. agrieuUural works, fniit aiul (ish canneries, jiotlery works,
shipyard; United Stuti-s arsenid and baiTncks. Vhkv. Itutte county, large
State Capitol, Sacramento.
n Sun Fni
II largi-
of Die
li Blind
trade in farm products fresh and
dried fruita, lumber, and ininijtg
BuppIieB. Earekft, Humboldt county,
on Humlwldt Bay. in redwood tv-
gion, and in an agrii'ulturaL fruit.
and dairj-ing district; seaport of
northern California; niany sawuiills;
lai^' lumlH'r trade. Gmss I'nllef,
Nevaila count.v, thriving city in a
region of extensive quartz niinea
ManjuriVf, Yuba comity, large min-
ing and agrieullural trade; variety
of nianufai-tories. Mmlrnto, Stanis-
laus county, center of a fine farm-
ing region. Monttrri/. Monterey
comity, on Slontercy Bay, fnshion-
alile sunmicr resort. Xiijm, Xapa
countj-, commands the large trade
of Napa valley: various important
manufactures. AVrm/n Cily, Ne-
vada county, center of an exteniuve
gold qunrtK mining district.
n'l, Simoma cianity, ship]>ing point for farm products of the
e.viensive maiiuractun-s. I'laifrrilU. Eldorado county, large
iigiii'idlund and mining supplies: a center ot di-<-iduous fruit
riiiimii", Ijcis Angeles county, in rich fmit region: olive-oil
kI oihcr manufactories; good schools; public library'. HclJtliiff,
cDinity. Hi hiitd of stiiinier navigation on the Sacrameiito, large
trade in lann ihihIucIs anil lumber. HaMini;. Shasta count.v, trade center
of fi large dislricl. Knlliinil', San Ileniardino county, i-xtensive fruit and
lunibci' business. HiriTiiili; Riverside c<mnty, beautiful, thriving city:
ci-ntei' of rich oning.' distrii-t. SiiUhhm. Jlonterey county, large business
itt Hour ;nid lumber. Sum Liiif (Hii^/Ki, in cimnly of same name, and in
fine fruil -gt'iiwing and agricultural district; various manufacturt-a. San
Ituf'iil. M;iriTi connly. on S:ui Francisco Ba.v, in a great dairj-ing region;
summer resort. Siiutn Cm:. Sjinta Cruz count.v, noted summer resort for
sea liathing; variiil nnmufitctures. Sanla Hiiw, Sonoma county, business
eenter i)f fertile Russian River valle.v. Vnll^. Solano county, on San
I'ablo Hay, lai^e Hour mills and otiieriiiaimfactorics : United Slates na»->-
yard 'lu Mare Islaml near the <-ity. I'fulurti, in connty of same name, im-
jiortant business in oil, lumber, and as]dia]tuin. Vinalia, Tulare c<mnty,
center iiF hirgi- gi'aiii and fniit n-gion in San Joaquin vallej'. IVtilKotiriltA,
Santa CruK county, hi-et sugar, fruit and liiml)er industriiv. n'ooilhiiid,
Yolo county. Ilonrishing city in line agricnltural and fruit district: variety
of miiuufactures: sujH'rior edu<-ational facilities. Yrehi, Siskiyou county,
in extreme northern part of (.'alifornia. tnule center of large farming, lum-
bering, fruit, and guld-miniug n-giim. Mtjst of tliese places arc county seats.
Tchai
14
steam Wagon Train,
taiu large areas of good hmd. But till.i^i' in Xcvuda
chiefly depends ou iiTigation, wliii-li is cxlciisivcly em-
ployed.
RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES.
Vegetation. Tlie chief tiinWr rejiioii of IIk- state lies
on the ea.steni slopes of tlie Siena Xevada. Jlcre are
forests of pine, fir, sprnee, cedar, and ntluM- tici's. Tlie
interior mountains bear sparse growths of pinon or nut
pine, juniper, and mountain mahogany.
Alon^ the ^treiinix nre (waltorvd cottonwoodn, willows, liireheK. and wild
cherries. Tlie dry alkaliuf vnllevs, cstieriall.v in the iicirth, la'iir little but
sagebrush, grwiBe woihI, niui other coarse vegetntioii. In the tide swjinips
about Humlxildt aii<l CnrsDu sinks in fiiund a kind of siikut <'iine. Roulh-
em Nevada is lart.'ely covered with niesquiti! «iid cactL (In the hills
fn^wa uutrilious bunch (^rass. By the rivei-s clover Ls )u>iiietinieH seen.
Among the native animals are the liighoni
or mountain sheep, antelope, bear, wolf, wolverene, voyote,
long-tailed fox, badger, mink, emiine, hare, an<l muskrat.
The birdt) include vsugn groitse, ((iiail, ducka. pmirie chiekeiis, white
bmnt, blue heroiiN, cranes, bitterns, liawks, owIm, wo<><Ipcckci's, tinclies,
and titmiee. In the streams and fresh-water lakes are line tivut, and
Canwn Luke abounds with ehuhs, imiUetin, and other fishes.
Minerals and Mining. A gi-eat resouree of Nevada is
its mineral wealth, and one of its largest industrial inter-
eets is mining. Tliere are rich mineral <ieposits in the
Carson Lake region. The gold and silver mines of tlie
Comstoek lode on Mount Davidson have been wonderfully
productive, as have others in tlie state. In tlie Carson
region there are also vast borax l)eds, anil dejtosits of salt,
soda, chalk, coal, i)eat. and ((uieksilver. In the Eiu'eka
distiiet there are silver-lead mines. Copper is mined ui-av
(roleoiida, Humboldt county, and at variou.s other i)laces.
At Steamboat suli»hur and cinnabar are found.
Other miTiei-ulH in the state include lend, antimony, bismuth, nickel,
r^obalt. and man^canese: also fiA'psum, mica. ^Tiipliite, iind kaolin and
other elaj-s. In the inountains trninites, limestones, iHin)hyi y, shite, and
lava and trap nw'ks make up the principal formations and e.\i-ellcnt build-
ing stones are abundant.
Mineral springs, hotliliot and cold, are numerous, and s<)me are noted
health resorts. Can you name any of thest^f
i'^iriculture. In regions of permanent streams and in
iri-igateil districts like Walker, Carson, Trnckee, Ilum-
I boldt, and Paradise valleys, all the cereals, fruits, oud
! vegetables common to these latitudes can be raised.
[ Wheat, barley, hay, alfalfa, potatoes, and sugar beets ai*e
, important crops.
Fi(Pi. daie.s oninges, and other setnitropical fruits, alAu some cotton and
toliai'co. are grown in the ('olormlo valley.
StiH-k-niising is ii large indiislry. The native grasses a£Eord good Rum-
mer piistiiri'. and idsii ciin' on the ground into natural hay, which, together
with ivliiie sage anil other herbaeeiius plants, provides winter feed.
Commerce. Nevada i.s traversed trom northeast to
sontliwi'st by a great trunk line of railroad, and has a
number of connc-cting lines, so that the chief centers of
pojiulation and indii-stry have aitiple facilities for transpor-
, talion and trade, both within and beyond the state. The
total length of railroads in Nevada is more than 1000 miles.
HISTORY.
This state takes its name, in Spanish meaning "snowy,"
from thf Siorra Nevada ("snowy mountains") on its west-
ern liiiimdary. The first European to enter within the
pre.M'iit limits of the state was probal)iy Francisco Garces,
a Franciscan father, while on a missionaiy exploration in
177."). In ISl?.") Peter Skeen Ogden, of the Hudson Bay
CiiTnpany, discovered the Humboldt River, After that
time American and other trappers frequently found their
way into the country.
Tlu> lir^t white niaTi to cross tho Sierra and the entire breadth i)f Nevada
WHS .leilcdiHli S, Smith, who made the journey from west ti> east in 1827,
III IKKf the noted trapper, guide, and soldier. Kit Carson. fi>!lowed the
IIuiuhi>ldi (then the t)gd«'n) Hiver from its head waters to the sink.
About this time emigrants to Califoniia and Oregon iH-gan paiwing
through Nevadji. In ISiJ Fremont entered it near Pilot I'cak and crossed
tiifalifoniia.
Ne\'a<la liad been a part of the Upper California of the
Spaniards and J[exieans. It was ceded to the United
States by Jlexico in 1848, at the close of the Mexican war.
All Imt the extreme southern part was incbided in the
territory of Utah in 1S.")0, whence nmst of it was trans-
ferred to Nevada temtory wlicn it was organized in ]8fjl,
and the rest to the state of Nevada in ISfifi.
Gold MUl, ViTKinU City.
The Boundaries of Ecuador.
A> statt'd oil ])a»r(* 1<>S of tiic Natural Advanced (uM»;r-
rapliv, tlu' houndarit's of few of tlir Soiuli Ainrriraii
r^'pnhlirs arc detiuitely scttlrd. Tliis is particularly triir
<»f Kcnad<.>r. Alon<r lici northern liordcr is a wild, fnn-st-
covcrcil rc«xi<>n cinhracin^ ahoiit loo, (KM) s(piarc mile-
that is claimed hv both Ecuador and ('olond»ia : and on the
son I hern border a re<rion nearlv half as lar<^' is claimed iiv
both Kcuador an<l Peru. Hetween these border lands
«'lainu*d by her more ])ro^^ressive and powerful neighbors
there remains in the actmd ])ossession of Kcuador only a
trianirular \ved;re-sha})ed tract with an area of about IIT.(HH)
><jiiare miles.
No boundary treaties havin;r been mutuallv ratified be-
tween Kcna<lor ami either of her lU'i^^^hbors. the maps issued
bv Kciiadorian authorities natnralh in<'hide in that conntrv
• « •
all <)f the disputed territory, which gives to the repu))lic the
shape of an irregular tra])ezoid about 750 miles long, with
an average width of about 'MUi miles, and an area of (7r><>x
.S3(i=: ) •24T.'><M» s<puire miles. On the other hand the maps
issued bv Colombia and l*eru include the territory claimed
by those repiibli<s. thus cutting Kcuador down to the tri-
angular wcilgc having a base in the west of about 4r>(l miles,
and its apex in the east about o'id miles from the Pacific,
and having an area of about ^'^-''-'A*'^ = ) llT.ooo s(juare
miles.
It thus happens that Atlases, Encyclopedias, and Scliool
(Geographies differ among themselves res|)ecting tJie tfhaj>e
and size of Kcuador : some rejnoducing the Ecuadorian
claims and giving the country the sha])e of a large trajjozoid
Among the Geographical publicatioiiri whicli have
adopted tlie small triangular area for Eeuiulor are :
S^. MILES.
Rand, McNally & Co.'s Atlas of the
World, 1897, paige 1 Go,* 'about 120,000
sq. mi." (including Cialapagos Islands,
3,000 sq. mi.), or on mainland . . . 117,000
* Bureau of American Republics, Com-
mercial Directory, 1897, Ecu A DOR, on
mainland . . 1 117.000
Statesman's Year B<M>k, 1898, on main-
land 117,000
Wagner and Supan's Die Bevdlkening der
Erde, 1891 115,665
Longmans' Gazetteer, 1895 .... 116,000
Meyers Konversations Lexikon, 1894 . 115,665
Lippincott's Gazetteer (Edition of 1895) 115,630
Appletons' Cyclopedia (Annual Volume
for 1897), on mainland 117,000
Natural Geographies, 1898, mainland
portion 115,680
Rand-McNally's Grammar School Geog-
raphy, 1895, 118,630 SCI. ini. (includ-
ing Galapagos Islands, 3,000 sq. mi.),
or mainland i>ortion 115,630
Several of the above publications in addition to giving
the small area, describe the triangular form of Ecuador,
which has been adopted in the Natural Geographies.
It is only in publications issued fifteen or twenty years
ago, including old editions of several of the above works,
that the area of Ecuador is given in conformity with its
tra{)ezoidal shape, thus :
*The maps of the South American countries published by the
Bureau of American Republics do not pretend to show anything
more than the territory claimed by each country. Thus the liureau
maps of Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia overlap one another in the
disputed territory, the two last-named leaving to Ecuador only the
triangular wedge shown in the diagram.
%\
To avoid fine, this book should be returned on
or before the date last stamped below
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